i 


TWHf! 


CONCRETE 

CONSTRUCTION 

ABOUT  THE  HOME 

AND  ON 

THE  FARM 


THE   RECOGNIZED   TEXT  BOOK 
OF  CEMENT   USERS 


REVISED  EDITION 
1909 


PUBLISHED  BY 


THE  ATLAS  PORTLAND   CEMENT  COMPANY 

30    BROAD     STREET 

NEW   YORK 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  MIXING  AND  HANDLING  "ATLAS"  PORTLAND  CEMENT — 
Continued.  PAGE 

Effect  of  External  Agencies  on  Concrete 33 

Fire  Resistance   33 

Water-Tightness 33 

Corrosion  of  Metal  Reinforcement 33 

Sea  Water 33 

Acids 35 

Oils 35 

Alkalies 35 

Freezing 35 

Specifications  for 

Posts 36 

Fence   Posts 36 

Table  of  Quantity  of  Materials  for  Fence  Posts 38 

Cost  of  Fence  Posts 41 

Corner   Posts 41 

Table  of  Quantity  of  Corner  Posts 41 

Hitching  Posts 41 

Clothes  Posts 42 

Horse   Blocks 43 

Watering  Troughs 44 

Hog  Troughs 51 

Slop  Tanks 52 

Fertilizer   Tanks 54 

Rain  Leaders 54 

Retaining   Walls 56 

Table  of  Dimensions  of  Retaining  Walls  and  Quantity  of  Ma- 
terials for  Different  Heights  of  Wall 57 

Dams 58 

Table  of  Dimensions  for  Small  Dams  and  Quantity  of  Materials 

for  Different  Heights  of  Dams 59 

Walls 60 

Cellar  and  Basement  Walls 60 

Table  of  Thicknesses  of  Walls  and  Quantity  of  Materials  for  Dif- 
ferent Heights  of  Basement 62 

Walls  above  Cellar  or  Basement 64 

Columns 67 

Steps  and  Stairs 69 

Table  of  Dimensions  of  Stairs 74 

Sidewalks 75 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR — Continued.  PAGE 

Table  of  Quantity  of  Materials  for  Sidewalks .    77 

Curbs  and  Gutters 79 

Barns 81 

Feed  Troughs 81 

Floors 86 

Cellar   Floors 86 

Barn    Floors 86 

Feeding  Floors   88 

Runways  from   Stables 89 

Drains 90 

Tile    Drains 91 

Cesspools , 94 

Box   Stalls 95 

Ventilation 95 

Hog   Pens 96 

Dairies 98 

Ice   Boxes 100 

Silos 103 

Table  of  Data  for  Different  Sizes  of  Silos 105 

Hollow  Wall  Silos 112 

Tanks 112 

Square  Tanks 113 

Round    Tanks 114 

Reinforcement  for  Tanks 117 

Table  of  Data  for  Different  Sizes  of  Tanks 117 

Grain  Elevators 117 

Corn   Cribs 1 18 

Cisterns 119 

Square   Cisterns    121 

Well  Curbs 121 

Ice   Houses 123 

Root    Cellars 126 

Mushroom    Cellars 129 

Arch    Driveways 130 

Culvert  Driveways 131 

Water  Pipes  Under  Driveways 132 

Hen    Nesting   Houses 132 

Chicken    Houses 134 

Green  Houses 137 

Concrete  Greenhouse  Tables 139 

Concrete    Greenhouse   Trays 142 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR — Continued.  PAGE 

Concrete   Flower   Boxes 142 

Hot-bed  Frames   144 

Windmill  Foundations  144 

Concrete    Roller ; 146 

Dance    Pavilion 148 

Piazza 149 

Lattice 1 50 

Chimney   Caps 151 

Tree  Surgery 152 

Filling  the  Cavity 153 

Concrete  Aquariums 154 

Concrete  Blocks 1 54 

Stucco  Work — Cement  Plaster,  Spatter  Dash,  Pebble  Dash 156 

Coloring  for  Concrete   Finish 156 

Concrete  Culverts 1 59 

Design  of  5-Foot  Arch  Culverts 160 

Design  of  8-Foot  Arch  Culvert 160 

Table  of  Amount  of  Materials  for  Arch  Culverts 162 

Table  of  Colors  for  Colored  Mortars 158 

Design  of  lO-Foot  Arch  Culvert 164 


FOREWORD. 

The  development  of  the  American  Portland  Cement  industry  during  the  past 
decade  has  been  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  age,  and  while  Portland  Cement 
Concrete  has  come  to  be  recognized  as  the  ideal  building  material  for  heavy 
work,  comparatively  little  attention  has  been  given  to  its  use  in  the  smaller 
construction  about  the  home  and  on  the  farm.  That  active  interest,  however, 
is  taken  in  this  important  subject  by  the  suburbanite,  the  villager,  and  the 
farmer,  is  evidenced  by  the  large  number  of  letters  of  inquiry  received  by  the 
agricultural  and  technical  journals. 

During  the  past  few  years  the  price  of  lumber  has  advanced  to  almost  pro- 
hibitive figures,  and  it  is  therefore  only  natural  that  a  substitute  material 
which  affords  the  advantages  of  moderate  cost,  durability,  and  beauty  should 
be  looked  upon  with  favor. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  enlarge  upon  the  uses  for  which  Portland  Cement  is 
now  considered  standard,  but  rather  to  direct  attention  to  the  economy  of  sup- 
planting wood,  brick,  and  cut  stone  in  divers  ways  by  the  more  durable, 
sightly,  and  sanitary  Portland  Cement  construction. 

In  the  following  pages  we  shall  endeavor  to  point  out,  in  language  free  from 
technical  terms,  some  of  the  uses  for  which  Portland  Cement  Concrete  is  espe- 
cially adapted. 


CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION. 

Concrete  construction  dates  back  to  the  time  of  the  Romans,  who  secured 
good  results  from  a  mixture  of  slaked  lime,  volcanic  dust,  sand  and  broken 
stone.  Even  this  combination,  crude  in  comparison  with  Portland  Cement 
Concrete,  produced  an  artificial  stone  which  has  stood  the  test  of  nearly  two 
thousand  years,  as  evidenced  by  many  works  in  Rome  which  are  to-day  in  a 
perfect  state  of  preservation. 

"Portland  Cement"  is  an  invention  of  modern  times — its  universal  use  the 
matter  of  a  quarter  of  a  century.  The  honor  of  its  discovery  belongs  to  Joseph 
Aspdin,  of  Leeds,  England,  who  took  out  a  patent  in  1824  for  the  manufacture 
of  "Portland  Cement,"  so  called  because  of  its  resemblance  in  color,  to  a  then 
popular  limestone  quarried  on  the  Island  of  Portland.  Manufacture  was  begun 
in  1825,  but  progress  was  slow  until  about  1850,  when,  through  improved 
methods  and  general  recognition  of  its  merits  as  a  building  material,  commer- 
cial success  was  assured.  About  this  time  the  manufacture  of  Portland  Cement 
was  taken  up  in  earnest  by  the  French  and  Germans,  and,  by  reason  of  their 
more  scientific  efforts,  both  the  method  of  manufacture  and  quality  of  the  fin- 
ished product  was  greatly  improved.  Portland  Cement  was  first  brought  to 
the  United  States  in  1865.  It  was  first  manufactured  in  this  country  in  1872, 
but  not  until  1896  did  the  annual  domestic  production  reach  the  million-barrel 
mark. 


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Wonderful  as  the  development  of  the  general  industry  has  been,  the  growth 
of  the  Atlas  Portland  Cement  Company's  plants  has  been  even  more  so.  Be- 
ginning in  1892  at  Coplay,  Pa.,  with  the  modest  capacity  of  250  barrels  per 
day,  its  production  has  steadily  increased  through  the  construction  of  plants 
Nos.  2,  3,  and  4,  at  Northampton,  Pa.,  and  plants  Nos.  5  and  6,  at  Hannibal, 
Mo.,  until  now  the  productive  capacity  is  more  than  40,000  barrels  each 
twenty-four  hours,  or  approximately  fourteen  million  barrels  per  year. 
This  production  is  greater  than  the  capacity  of  any  other  Portland  Cement 
company  in  the  world.  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  is  manufactured  from  the 
finest  raw  materials,  under  expert  supervision  in  every  department  of  the 
works.  It  is  of  the  highest  quality,  being  guaranteed  to  pass  all  usual  and 
customary  specifications,  such  as  the  specifications  of  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment and  those  of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  which  latter 
specifications  have  been  concurred  in  by  The  American  Institute  of  Architects, 
The  American  Engineering  and  Maintenance  of  Way  Association,  and  The 
Association  of  American  Portland  Cement  Manufacturers.  The  quality  of 
eastern  and  western  "ATLAS"  is  identical.  By  virtue  of  its  enormous  produc- 
tion, The  Atlas  Portland  Cement  Company  is  able  to  develop  and  retain  in  its 
service  the  most  skilled  operating  talent  in  the  Portland  Cement  industry, 
which  insures  a  thoroughly  reliable  and  uniform  product. 

"ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  is  guaranteed  to  be  "ALWAYS  UNIFORM." 


10 


Concrete,  which  is  really  an  artificial  stone,  is  made  by  CONCRETE 
mixing  pieces  of  stone,  such  as  broken  granite  or  hard  lime- 
stone, which  may  vary  in  size  from  a  walnut  to  a  hen's  egg, 
with  clean,  coarse  sand  and  first-class  Portland  cement,  using 
enough  water  to  make  a  mushy  mixture  about  like  heavy 
cream. 

The  cement  and  water  make  the  mass  begin  to  stiffen  in 
about  half  an  hour,  and  in  from  10  to  24  hours  it  becomes  hard 
enough  so  that  an  impression  cannot  readily  be  made  by  press- 
ing on  it  with  the  thumb.  In  a  month's  time  the  entire  mass 
becomes  one  hard  stone. 

Conglomerate  or  pudding  stone  in  nature  is  really  a  natural 
cement  concrete,  the  large  and  small  particles  of  pieces  of  stone 
and  sand  being  cemented  together  in  the  course  of  ages  in  a 
similar  way  to  that  by  which  cement  is  made. 

Where  a  very  strong  mortar  is  required  for  laying  brick  or  MORTAR 

stone,  "ATLAS"  Portland  cement  may  be  mixed  with  sand  in 
proportions  one  part  "ATLAS"  cement  to  two  and  one-half 
parts  sand.  A  characteristic  of  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  is 
that  it  gives  an  especially  greasy  mortar. 

A  mortar  nearly  as  strong  as  the  above,  and  which  works 
still  better  under  the  trowel,  can  be  made  by  mixing  one  bag 
"ATLAS"  Portland  cement  with  one  barrel  of  clean  sand  and 
one-half  pail  of  lime  putty.  The  lime  putty  is  made  by  thor- 
oughly slaking  quick  lime.  The  longer  the  time  the  putty  can 
stand  before  using  the  better  it  is.  It  must  never  be  used  when 
hot  or  until  the  lime  is  thoroughly  slaked.  When  laying  up 
brick  and  stone  with  any  kind  of  mortar  they  must  be  thor- 
oughly wet. 

Always  use  the  best  Portland  cement  obtainable.  Natural  CEMENT 

cement  is  not  suitable  for  concrete.  Whatever  the  kind  of 
cement,  unless  it  is  of  first-class  quality,  it  may  give  trouble 
by  not  setting  up  and  hardening  properly. 

Portland  cement  is  manufactured  from  a  mixture  of  two 
materials,  one  of  them  a  rock  like  limestone,  or  a  softer  mate- 
rial like  chalk,  which  is  nearly  pure  lime,  and  another  material 
like  shale,  which  is  a  hardened  clay  or  else  clay  itself.  In 
other  words,  there  must  be  one  material  which  is  largely  lime 
and  another  material  which  is  largely  clay,  and  these  two  must 

xx 


CEMENT  be  mixed  in  very  exact  proportions  determined  by  chemical 

(Cont'd)  tests,  the  proportions  of  the  two  being  changed  every  few 

hours,  if  necessary,  to  allow  for  the  variation  in  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  materials. 

"ATLAS"  PORTLAND  CEMENT  then  is  made  by  quar- 
rying each  of  these  two  materials,  crushing  them  separately, 
mixing  them  in  the  exact  proportions,  and  grinding  them  to  a 
very  fine  powder.  This  powder  is  fed  into  long  rotary  kilns, 
which  are  iron  tubes  about  5  or  6  feet  in  diameter,  lined  with 
fire  brick  and  over  100  feet  long.  Powdered  coal  is  also  fed  into 
the  kilns  with  the  ground  rock  and  burned  at  a  temperature  of 
about  3000  degrees  Fahrenheit,  a  temperature  higher  than  that 
needed  to  melt  iron  to  a  liquid,  and  there  is  formed  what  is 
called  cement  clinker,  a  kind  of  dark,  porous  stone  which  looks 
like  lava. 

After  leaving  the  kiln,  the  clinker  is  cooled,  crushed  and 
ground  again  to  a  still  finer  powder,  so  fine,  in  fact,  that  most 
of  the  particles  are  less  than  1/200  of  an  inch  in  size,  and  this 
grinding  brings  it  back  to  the  very  light  gray  color  character- 
istic of  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement. 

It  is  now  placed  in  storage  tanks  or  stock  houses  where  it 
remains  for  a  while  to  season  before  it  is  put  into  bags  or 
barrels  and  shipped.  The  barrels  weigh  400  pounds  gross,  or 
376  pounds  net.  When  shipped  in  bags,  the  weight  is  94 
pounds  per  bag,  four  bags  being  equal  to  one  barrel. 

At  the  "ATLAS"  plants,  from  the  time  the  rock  is  taken 
from  the  quarry  until  it  is  packed  in  barrels  or  bags,  all  of 
the  work  is  done  by  machinery,  and  a  thorough  chemical 
mixture  takes  place  regulated  by  the  experienced  chemists  in 
charge  of  the  work. 

PACKING  OF  CEMENT.  Portland  cement  may  be  obtained 
in  paper  bags,  cloth  sacks  or  wooden  barrels.  The  most  con- 
venient form  for  most  users  is  the  cloth  sack.  These  sacks 
can  be  returned  to  the  dealer  from  whom  the  cement  was 
purchased  and  a  rebate  obtained  for  them  if  they  are  kept  dry 
and  untorn. 

HOW  TO  STORE  CEMENT.  Portland  cement  must  be 
stored  in  a  dry  place,  that  is,  in  a  barn  or  shed,  for  dampness 
is  the  only  element  which  will  injure  its  quality.  The  cement 
will  become  lumpy  and  even  form  a  solid  mass  when  kept  in  a 
damp  place,  and  when  in  this  condition  it  should  not  be  used. 


All  lumps  which  do  not  crumble  at  the  lightest  blow  should  be 
thrown  out. 

Cement  stored  in  a  building  must  not  be  placed  on  the 
bare  ground.  Make  a  platform  which  is  at  least  6  inches 
above  the  ground,  and  store  the  cement  on  this  platform.  If 
the  building  has  a  concrete  floor  it  is  advisable  to  cover  the 
floor  with  planking  upon  which  to  place  the  cement. 

Sand,  crushed  stone  or  gravel  screenings  passing  when  dry        SAND    (Fine 
a  screen  having  ^-inch  diameter  holes  is  called  the  fine  aggre-  Aggregate) 

gate.  Sand  should  be  (i)  clean,  that  is,  free  from  dirt  like 
vegetable  loam,  and  (2)  coarse.. 

If  the  sand  contains  vegetable  matter,  it  is  difficult  to  tell 
whether  the  sand  is  good,  because  a  very  small  quantity — a 
fraction  of  one  per  cent. — may  sometimes  prevent  the  con- 
crete from  hardening.  When  the  job  is  small,  however,  an 
approximate  idea  of  the  quality  may  be  obtained  by  exam- 
ining the  sand  in  the  bank  and  making  up  a  specimen  of 
concrete  on  the  job  as  described  below.  The  ordinary  plan  of 
taking  a  little  sand  in  the  palm  of  one  hand  and  rubbing  it 
with  the  fingers  of  the  other  to  see  if  it  discolors  is  of  little 
value,  and  little  can  be  learned  from  dropping  sand  in  water, 
because  it  is  not  so  much  the  quantity  as  the  kind  of  impurity 
that  counts. 

HOW  TO  TEST  FOR  A  CLEAN  SAND.  Two  rough  tests 
are  as  follows:  (a)  Pick  up  a  double  handful  of  moist  sand 
from  the  bank,  open  the  hands,  holding  them  with  the  thumbs 
up,  and  rub  the  sand  lightly  between  the  hands,  keeping  them 
about  ^2  inch  apart,  allowing  the  sand  to  slip  quickly  between 
them.  Repeat  this  operation  five  or  six  times,  then  rub  the 
hands  lightly  together  so  as  to  remove  the  fine  grains  of  sand 
which  adhere  to  them,  and  examine  to  see  whether  or  not  a 
thin  film  of  sticky  matter  adheres  to  the  fingers;  if  so,  do  not 
use  the  sand,  for  it  contains  loam.  A  further  test  is  to  scrape 
some  of  this  matter  from  the  fingers  on  the  end  of  a  penknife 
and  take  a  little  of  it  between  the  teeth.  If  it  does  not  feel 
gritty  or  sharp  it  indicates  vegetable  loam,  which  is  bad.  Do 
not  use  this  sand,  or  if  no  other  can  be  obtained  test  it  further 
to  make  sure  that  there  is  not  sufficient  loam  present  to  prevent 
the  cement  from  getting  thoroughly  hard. 

13 


SAND     (Fine 
Aggregate) 
(Confd.) 


The  sand  for  the  test  given  above  must  be  moist,  just  as  it 
conies  from  the  bank.  When  dry  the  dirt  will  not  stick  to  the 
fingers,  hence  this  test  cannot  be  used.  Some  idea  can  be 
obtained,  however,  by  the  appearance  of  the  sand,  even  if  it 
is  dry.  If  it  looks  "dead,"  an  appearance  which  is  caused 
by  the  particles  of  dirt  sticking  in  little  lumps  to  the  grains 
of  sand,  sometimes  also  making  the  grains  of  sand  stick  to- 
gether in  little  bunches  when  picked  up,  it  is  almost  a  sure 
sign  of  vegetable  matter,  and  the  sand  should  not  be  used. 
Fine  roots  in  a  sand  will  also  indicate  the  presence  of  vegetable 
matter. 

(b)  Make  up  two  blocks  of  concrete,  each  about  6  inches 
square  and  6  inches  thick,  using  the  same  cement  and  the 
same  sand  and  gravel  or  stone  as  will  be  used  in  the  structure 
to  be  built,  and  mixing  them  in  the  same  proportions  and  of 
the  same  consistency.  Keep  one  block  in  the  air  out  of  doors 
for  7  days  and  the  other  in  a  fairly  warm  room. 

The  specimen  in  the  warm  room  should  set  so  that  on  the 
following  day  it  will  bear  the  pressure  of  the  thumb  without 
indentation,  and  it  should  also  begin  to  whiten  out  at  this 
early  period.  The  specimen  out  of  doors  should  be  hard 
enough  to  remove  from  the  molds  in  24  hours  in  ordinary  mild 
weather,  or  48  hours  in  cold,  damp  weather.  At  the  end  of  a 
week  test  both  blocks  by  hitting  them  with  a  hammer.  If  the 
hammer  does  not  dent  them  under  light  blows,  such  as  would 
be  used  for  driving  tacks,  and  the  blocks  sound  hard  and  are 
not  broken  under  medium  blows,  the  sand  as  a  general  rule 
can  be  used. 

HOW  TO  WASH  SAND.  Sand  cannot  be  washed  simply  by 
wetting  the  pile  of  sand  with  a  hose,  for  this  only  washes  or 
transfers  the  dirt  to  a  lower  part  of  the  pile.  Sand,  provided 
it  is  not  too  fine,  can  be  satisfactorily  washed,  however,  by 
making  a  washing  trough,  as  shown  in  Fig.  i.  For  sands  a 
screen  with  30  meshes  to  the  linear  inch  is  necessary  to  prevent 
the  good  particles  from  passing  through  it.  This  must  be  sup- 
ported by  cleats  placed  quite  near  together,  or  it  will  break 
through.  The  sand  is  shoveled  on  to  the  upper  end  of  the 
trough  by  one  man,  while  another  one  can  wash  it  with  a  hose. 
The  flow  of  water  will  wash  the  sand  down  the  incline,  and  as 
the  sand  and  water  pass  over  the  screen  the  dirty  water  will 


drain  off  through  the  screen,  leaving  the  clean  sand  for  use. 
By  this  arrangement  the  dirt  which  is  washed  out  cannot  in 
any  way  get  mixed  with  the  clean  sand 


SAND      (Fine 

Aggregate.) 

(Cont'd  ) 


Fine.  m&sh  screen 
//n  Boards 


Trough  fo  run  otf'dirfy  wafer 
Trough  fo  Ae  fined  v/jfh  farrecf pa/zejr 
Fig.  i.    Washing  Trough  for  Sand  or  Gravel. 

COARSE  SAND.  Sand  should  be  coarse.  By  this  we  mean 
that  a  large  proportion  of  the  grains  should  measure  1/32  to  y& 
inch  in  diameter,  and  should  the  grains  run  up  to  %  inch  the 
strength  of  the  mortar  is  increased.  Fine  sand,  even  if  clean, 
makes  a  poor  mortar  or  concrete,  and,  if  its  use  is  unavoidable, 
an  additional  proportion  of  cement  must  be  used  with  it  to 
thoroughly  coat  the  grains. 

If  the  sand  is  very  fine  a  mortar  or  concrete  made  from  it 
will  not  be  strong.  Sometimes  fine  sand  must  be  used  because 
no  other  can  be  obtained,  but  in  such  a  case,  double  the  amount 
of  cement  may  be  required.  For  example,  instead  of  using  a 
concrete  one  part  cement  to  two  parts  sand  to  four  parts  stone, 
a  concrete  one  part  cement  to  one  part  sand  to  two  parts  stone 
may  be  used. 

NATURAL  MIXTURES  OF  BANK  SAND  AND  GRAVEL. 
Very  often  the  sand  and  gravel  found  in  a  bank  are  used  by 
inexperienced  people  just  as  it  is  found  without  regard  to  the 
proportions  of  the  two  materials.  This  may  be  all  right  in 
some  cases,  but  generally  there  is  too  much  sand  for  the 
gravel  or  stone,  so  that  the  resulting  concrete  is  not  nearly  as 
strong  as  it  would  be  if  the  proportions  between  the  sand  and 


gravel  were  right.  It  is  better  then  to  screen  the  sand  from 
the  gravel  through  a  %-inch  sieve,  and  then  mix  the  materials 
in  the  right  proportions,  using  generally  about  half  as  much 
sand  as  stone.  By  so  doing  a  leaner  mix  can  be  used  than 
where  the  sand  and  gravel  are  taken  from  the  bank  direct. 
The  cost  of  the  cement  saved  will  more  than  pay  for  the  extra 
labor  required  to  screen  the  material.  For  example:  Using 
even  a  very  good  gravel  bank,  a  mixture  one  part  cement  to 
four  parts  natural  gravel  must  be  employed  instead  of  one 
part  cement  to  two  parts  sand  to  four  parts  of  screened  gravel. 
So  much  more  cement  is  thus  required  with  the  natural  gravel 
that  a  saving  of  one  bag  of  cement  in  every  seven  is  made  by 
screening  and  remixing  in  the  right  proportion. 
CRUSHER  SCREENINGS.  Screenings  from  broken  stone 
make  an  excellent  fine  aggregate,  which  can  be  substituted  for 
sand  unless  the  stone  is  very  soft,  shelly  or  contains  a  large 
percentage  of  mica. 


GRAVEL  OR  Gravel  or  broken  stone  forms  the  largest  part  of  the  mass 

PROICFN 

STONE    (Coarse  of  a  &ood  concrete,  and  is  called  the  coarse  aggregate.     If  the 
Aggregate  >  concrete  is  to  be  used  simply  for  filling,  or  in  a  low  wall  against 

which  nothing  is  to  be  piled,  clean  cinders,  screened  to  remove 
the  dust,  may  sometimes  be  used  for  the  coarse  aggregate. 
The  concrete  made  from  them,  however,  is  not  strong  and  is 
very  porous.  Slag  or  broken  brick  are  sometimes  used  for  the 
coarse  aggregate. 

The  size  of  the  stone  is  best  graded  from  fine  particles 
about  %  mcn  diameter  up  to  the  coarser.  The  largest  size 
pieces  may  be  2%  inches  where  a  foundation  or  a  wall  12 
inches  thick  or  over  is  being  built,  while  for  thin  walls  and 
where  reinforcement  is  used  the  largest  particles  had  best  be 
about  ^4-inch  size. 

With  gravel  the  danger  is  apt  to  lie  in  the  grains  being 
coated  with  clay  or  vegetable  matter  which  prevents  the 
cement  from  sticking  to  them,  and  hence  a  very  weak  concrete 
results.  The  method  for  washing  gravel  should  be  the  same 
as  that  described  for  sand  (see  page  14)  and  shown  in  Fig.  i. 
The  screen  when  washing  the  gravel  should  have  openings  % 
inch  square. 

16 


WHAT  NOT  TO  USE.  Do  not  use  dirty  stone  or  gravel  in 
any  case.  Avoid  soft  sandstones,  soft  freestones,  soft  lime- 
stones, slate  and  shale. 

The  water  used  for  concrete  must  be  clean.     It  should  not  WATER 

be  taken  from  a  stream  or  pond  into  which  any  waste  from 
chemical  mills,  material  from  barns,  as  manure,  or  other  refuse, 
is  dumped.  If  the  water  runs  through  alkali  soil  or  contains 
vegetable  matter  it  is  best  to  make  up  a  block  of  concrete, 
using  this  water,  and  see  whether  the  cement  sets  properly. 
Do  not  use  sea  water. 

Concrete  is  composed  of  a  certain  amount  or  proportion  of  PROPORTIONS 
cement,  a  larger  amount  of  sand,  and  a  still  larger  amount  of 
stone.  The  fixing  of  the  quantities  of  each  of  these  materials 
is  called  proportioning.  The  proportions  for  a  mix  of  concrete 
given,  for  instance,  one  part  of  cement  to  two  parts  of  sand  to 
four  parts  of  stone  or  gravel,  are  written  1 12  14,  and  this  means 
that  one  cubic  foot  of  packed  cement  is  to  be  mixed  with  two 
cubic  feet  of  sand  and  with  four  cubic  feet  of  loose  stone. 

For  ordinary  work  use  twice  as  much  coarse  aggregate 
(that  is,  gravel  or  stone)  as  fine  aggregate  (that  is,  sand). 

If  gravel  from  a  natural  bank  is  used  without  screening, 
use  the  same  proportion  called  for  of  the  coarse  aggregate; 
that  is,  if  the  specifications  call  for  proportions  i  :2  14,  as  given 
above,  use  for  unscreened  gravel  (provided  it  contains  quite  a 
large  quantity  of  stone)  one  part  cement  to  four  parts 
unscreened  gravel. 

If  when  placing  concrete  with  the  proportions  specified,  a 
wall  shows  many  voids  or  pockets  of  stone,  use  a  little  more 
sand  and  a  little  less  stone  than  called  for.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  when  placing,  a  lot  of  mortar  rises  to  the  top,  use  less 
sand  and  more  stone  in  the  next  batch. 

In  calculating  the  amount  of  each  of  the  materials  to  use 
for  any  piece  of  work,  do  not  make  the  mistake  so  often  made 
by  the  inexperienced  that  one  barrel  of  cement,  two  barrels  of 
sand  and  four  barrels  of  stone  will  make  seven  barrels  of 
concrete.  As  previously  stated,  the  sand  fills  in  the  voids 
between  the  stones,  while  the  cement  fills  the  voids  between 
the  grains  of  sand,  and  therefore  the  total  quantity  of  concrete 
will  be  slightly  in  excess  of  the  original  quantity  of  stone. 
This  point  is  very  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  2. 


GRADED  STONE 


MIXTURE 


Fig.  2.     Diagram  Illustrating  Measurement  of  Dry  Materials 
and  the  Mixture.* 


PROPORTIONS 
(Cont'd) 


The  following  quotation  from  Concrete,  Plain  and  Rein- 
forced,* by  the  well-known  authorities,  Taylor  and  Thompson, 
is  printed  as  a  guide  to  those  who  wish  to  build  any  concrete 
structure  for  which  specific  instructions  are  not  given  in  the 
following  pages. 

"As  a  rough  guide  to  the  selection  of  materials  for  various 
classes  of  work,  we  may  take  four  proportions  which  differ 
from  each  other  simply  in  the  relative  quantity  of  cement." 

"(a)  A  Rich  Mixture  for  columns  and  other  structural 
parts  subjected  to  high  stresses  or  requiring  exceptional  water- 
tightness:  Proportions— 1:1^:3;  that  is,  one  barrel  (4  bags) 
packed  Portland  cement  to  one  and  one-half  barrels  (5.7  cubic 
feet)  loose  sand  to  three  barrels  (11.4  cubic  feet)  loose  gravel 
or  broken  stone. 

"(b)  A  Standard  Mixture  for  reinforced  floors,  beams  and 
columns,  for  arches,  for  reinforced  engine  or  machine  founda- 
tions subject  to  vibrations,  for  tanks,  sewers,  conduits  and  other 
water-tight  work:  Proportions — 1:2:4;  that  is,  one  barrel 
(4  bags)  packed  Portland  cement  to  two  barrels  (7.6  cubic  feet) 
loose  sand  to  four  barrels  (15.2  cubic  feet)  loose  gravel  or 
broken  stone. 

"(c)  A  Medium  Mixture  for  ordinary  machine  foundations, 
retaining  walls,  abutments,  piers,  thin  foundation  walls,  building 
walls,  ordinary  floors,  sidewalks  and  sewers  with  heavy  walls: 
Proportions — 1:2^:5;  that  is,  one  barrel  (4  bags)  packed 
Portland  cement  to  two  and  one-half  barrels  (9.5  cubic  feet) 
loose  sand  to  five  barrels  (19  cubic  feet)  loose  gravel  or  broken 
stone. 

"(d)  A  Lean  Mixture  for  unimportant  work  in  masses,  for 
heavy  walls,  for  large  foundations  supporting  a  stationary  load 
and  for  backing  for  stone  masonry:  Proportions — i  13:6;  that 
is,  one  barrel  (4  bags)  packed  Portland  cement  to  three  barrels 
(11.4  cubic  feet)  loose  sand  to  six  barrels  (22.8  cubic  feet)  loose 
gravel  or  broken  stone." 

*Taken  by  permission  from  Taylor  &  Thompson's  "Concrete  Plain 
and  Reinforced,"  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York,  publishers. 

18 


Green  timber  is  preferable,  for,  if  seasoned,  it  is  likely  to 
swell  and  warp  when  brought  in  contact  with  moisture  from 
the  concrete.  White  pine  is  best,  but  fir,  yellow  pine  or  spruce 
are  also  suitable.  If  a  smooth  surface  is  desired,  the  form 
boards  or  planks  next  to  the  concrete  must  be  planed  and  the 
edges  tongued  and  grooved  or  beveled.  Grease  the  inside  of 
forms  with  either  soap,  linseed  oil,  mixed  lard  and  kerosene,  or 
crude  oil,  that  is,  petroleum,  otherwise  particles  of  concrete 
will  stick  to  the  forms  when  they  are  removed,  thus  giving  an 
unnecessarily  rough  surface  to  the  face  of  the  concrete.  Forms 


FORMS 


Fig.  3.    Section  of  Forms  Showing  Method  of  Holding  Sides  of  Forms. 

should  not  be  greased  when  it  is  intended  to  plaster  the  surface 
of  the  concrete,  but  should  be  thoroughly  wet  immediately 
before  placing  the  concrete. 

Lay  the  sheathing  or  form  boards  horizontally.  These 
may  be  of  i-inch,  i*/2-inch  or  2-inch  lumber,  the  distance  apart 
of  the  studding  being  governed  by  the  thickness  of  sheathing 
selected.  Place  the  studs  not  more  than  2  feet  apart  for  i-inch 
sheathing,  nor  more  than  5  feet  apart  for  2-inch  sheathing. 
They  should  be  securely  braced  to  withstand  the  pressure  of 
the  soft  concrete,  also  of  the  ramming  and  tamping.  In  build- 
ing forms  do  not  drive  the  nails  all  the  way  home.  Leave  the 
heads  out  so  that  it  is  possible  to  draw  them  with  a  claw 
hammer.  The  less  hammering  done  around  green  concrete 

19 


the  better.  Avoid  cracks  in  forms  into  which  the  mortar  will 
force  itself  and  form  "fins"  on  the  surface  of  the  work. 

The  length  of  time  the  forms  should  be  left  in  place  varies 
with  conditions.  Where  no  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  on  the 
concrete,  forms  can  be  removed  within  one-half  to  two  days,  or 
as  soon  as  the  concrete  will  withstand  the  pressure  of  the 
thumb  without  indentation.  On  very  small  work,  like  drain 
tile,  two  to  four  hours  is  sufficient  time,  provided  it  is  carefully 
handled  and  left  in  place  until  thoroughly  hard.  On  large  and 
important  walls  one  to  three  days  are  generally  required,  and 
if  any  water  or  earth  pressure  comes  against  the  walls  the 
forms  should  be  left  in  place  from  three  to  four  weeks.  Slab 
forms  can  be  removed  in  about  one  week,  but  the  supporting 
posts  under  any  beams  and  slabs  must  not  be  touched  for  a 
month  after  laying  the  concrete. 

Concrete  forms  are  kept  from  separating  or  bulging  either 
by  using  bolts  or  by  wiring.  Bolts  as  a  general  rule  are  more 
satisfactory  on  large  work  than  wire,  but  as  they  cannot 
always  be  conveniently  obtained,  wires  are  used  extensively. 
In  Fig.  3  are  sketched  both  methods  for  holding  side  forms 
together.  The  spacers  are  only  placed  between  the  forms  to 
hold  them  the  proper  distance  apart,  and  must  be  removed 
after  some  of  the  concrete  is  placed.  Where  wires  are  used, 
the  forms  are  drawn  together  by  twisting,  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  This  is  done  with  a  large  nail  or  a  hammer  handle. 

CIRCULAR  For  a  round  structure  two  sets  of  circular  forms  are  usually 

FORMS  needed,  namely,  inner  and  outer  forms,  "A"  and  "B,"  Fig.  5. 

Both  of  these  come  into  use  when  building  a  silo  or  other  struc- 
ture having  a  thin  wall,  but  in  the  case  of  a  solid  column  only 
the  outer  form  is  necessary.  Both  inner  and  outer  forms  are 
made  practically  the  same,  except  that  the  radius  of  the  outer 
one  is  of  necessity  greater  than  that  of  the  inner  because  of  the 
thickness  of  the  walls  between  the  two  forms. 

A  simple  method  of  drawing  the  circle  for  the  outer  form  is 
as  follows:  Take  a  piece  of  string,  attach  one  end  to  a  long 
spike,  marked  "A,"  Fig.  4,  and  stick  it  into  the  ground. 
Measure  off  on  the  string  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  circle 
desired,  tie  a  knot,  through  which  force  a  nail  (marked  "B," 
Fig.  4),  and,  keeping  the  string  stretched  between  these  two 
points,  draw  a  continuous  line.  Lay  the  boards  around  the 
line  just  made,  nail  them  together  firmly  and  then  mark  the 


circle  out  on  them  and  saw  to  the  line.     After  making  two  or  CIRCULAR 

more  forms,  place  them  at  equal  distances  apart,  and  put  on  FORMS  (Cont'd) 
the  sideboards  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  5.    These  boards 
are  called  "Lagging." 


Oufer    F'orn. 


B 


5ecfiona  of 
Circufar     ror 


Ifcrffcof  Section. 

Fig.  5.  Circular  Forms. 


Fig.  4.  Laying  Out  Circular  Forms. 

The  quantity  of  tools  will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  size  of 
the  gang  of  men.  The  following  schedule  is  based  on  a  small 
gang  of  two  or  three  men,  making  concrete  by  hand : 


TOOLS  AND 
APPARATUS 


Concrete  Wheelbarrow. 


Square  Pointed  Shovel 


Three  No.  3  square-pointed  shovels. 

Two  wheelbarrows  (iron  wheelbarrows  the  best). 

One  tamper,  a  piece  of  2  x  4-inch  joist  is  sufficient. 

One  garden  spade  or  spading  tool. 

One  water  barrel. 

Three  water  buckets. 


One  sand  screen,  %-inch  or  %-inch  mesh,  for  screening 
sand  from  the  gravel. 

One  measuring  box  (see  Fig.  6). 

One  mixing  platform  about  10  feet  square  built  so  substan- 
tially that  it  can  be  moved  without  coming  to  pieces,  having  a 
2  x  3-inch  strip  around  the  edge  to  prevent  the  waste  of  mate- 
rials and  water.  This  platform  can  be  made  of  i-inch  stuff, 
resting  on  joists  about  2  feet  apart,  provided  it  is  stiffened  by 
being  tongued  and  grooved. 


Fig.  6.    Measuring  Box  for  Sand  and  Gravel.* 

Concrete  should  be  mixed  as  near  the  place  where  it  is  to  be 
used  as  practicable,  so  as  to  avoid  delay  in  getting  it  into  place. 
If  left  standing  any  length  of  time  it  will  set  and  become  use- 
less. To  avoid  this,  mix  small  batches  at  a  time,  using  on  a 
small  job  not  more  than  a  half  barrel  or  two  bags  of  cement  to 
the  batch.  Should  the  cement  take  its  initial  set,  i.  e.,  begin  to 
harden,  before  being  placed  in  the  forms,  so  that  it  lumps: 
when  retempered,  discard  it,  as  the  hardening  qualities  of 
cement  are  affected  if  disturbed  after  it  has  begun  to  set. 

If  sand  or  gravel  require  washing,  add  to  the  above  list  of 
tools  and  apparatus : 

One  washing  screen  for  sand  with  30  meshes  to  the  linear 
inch. 

One  washing  screen  for  gravel  with  *4-inch  meshes. 

*See  footnote,  page  18. 

99 


Too  much  attention  cannot  be  paid  to  this  important  part 
of  concrete  making.  The  best  and  most  convenient  way  to 
measure  the  sand  and  stone  is  to  make  a  measuring  box  or 
frame  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

The  inside  dimensions  of  the  box  for  different  mixes  of 
concrete  are  given  in  the  table  below,  the  size  of  the  box  being 

QUANTITY  OF  MATERIALS  AND  SIZES  OF  MEASURING  BOXES. 


MEASURING 


+a 

«?    rn 

Con- 

Size of 

Mix 

c  & 

C   oS 

Sand 

Gravel 

crete 

Measuring 

<p« 

Made, 

Box 

o 

Cu.  Ft. 

Lgfh.Dpth.Wdth. 

1:1*:3 

2 

2.8  cu.  ft.  or    f  bbl. 

5.6cu.  ft.  or  IJbbl. 

7.0 

3'0"x2'0//xlO// 

1-2    :4 

2 

3.8  cu.  ft.  or  1    bbl. 

7.6cu.  ft.  or  2    bbl. 

9.0 

4'0"x2'4"xlO" 

l:2*:5 

2 

4.8  cu.  ft.  or  libbl. 

9.6  cu.  ft.  or  2*  bbl. 

10.9 

4'6"x2'2"xl2" 

1:3   :6 

2 

5.8cu.  ft.  or  l^bbl. 

11.6  cu.  ft.  or  3    bbl. 

12.8 

4'6"x2'7"xl2" 

Note. — A  cement  barrel  holds  3.8  cubic  feet. 

based  on  a  two-bag  batch  of  concrete ;  that  is,  using  two  bags 
"ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  each  batch.  The  use  of  the  box 
or  frame  for  measuring  can  be  best  illustrated  by  the  following 
example :  Assume  a  i  :2  14  mix.  From  the  table  a  measuring 
frame  or  box,  10  inches  high  by  2  feet  4  inches. by  4  feet  inside 
dimensions,  must  be  made.  Lay  this  box  on  the  mixing  plat- 
form, fill  it  exactly  half  full  of  sand,  up  to  a  mark  previously 
made  all  around  it,  and  level  off  the  sand  to  make  sure  that  the 
sand  just  fills  half  the  frame,  and  then  raise  the  measuring 
frame.  Dump  two  bags  of  cement  on  the  sand  and  mix  it  as 
described  under  "Mixing,"  on  page  24.  Even  off  the  mixed 
cement  and  sand,  place  the  measuring  box  on  top  of  it  and  fill 
the  frame  with  stone  level  with  the  top.  Level  off  the  stone 
carefully,  raise  the  measuring  box  and  the  correct  amount  of 
stone  is  ready  to  be  mixed  with  the  cement  and  sand. 

Another  way  to  measure  the  sand  and  stone  is  by  using  a 
wheelbarrow.  To  determine  the  capacity  of  the  wheelbarrow, 
dump  into  it  one  or  two  bags  of  cement  and  see  how  much  of 
the  wheelbarrow  is  filled;  taking  this  as  a  unit,  measure  the 
sand  and  stone  accordingly,  using  perhaps  a  little  less  of  the 
sand  and  stone  than  would  be  indicated  by  the  cement  measure 
considered  as  one  part.  This  method  is  not  nearly  so  accurate 
as  the  first  one,  and  if  used  the  barrow  should  be  filled  with 
cement  two  or  three  times  a  day  to  keep  the  eye  trained. 


MIXING  An  essential  to  thorough  mixing  is  a  flat  water-tight  plat- 

form, a  convenient  size  being  about  10  feet  square,  the  boards 
forming  which  must  be  laid  with  tight  joints  to  prevent  the 
cement  and  water  from  running  through  while  mixing.  If  these 
boards  are  planed  off  on  top  it  will  make  the  shoveling  easier. 
The  operation  of  mixing  the  materials  for  concrete  is  as 
follows:  Measure  the  sand  and  spread  it  in  a  layer  of  even 
depth  as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  Place  the  cement  on  top  of  the 
sand.  First  turn  these  two  materials  toward  the  center  of 
the  board  (see  Fig.  7)  and  then  turn  them  twice  more  or  until 
they  are  thoroughly  mixed  together,  as  indicated  by  a  uniform 


IMPROVISED  MIXING  PLATFORM  AND  TOOLS  USED  ON  SMALL  JOB  AT  COLUMBIA,  MO. 

color.  Next  wet  the  stone,  throw  it  on  top  of  the  mixed 
cement  and  sand  and  turn  the  whole  mass  at  least  three  times, 
water  being  slowly  poured  on  during  the  first  turning,  the 
quantity  varying  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work.  In 
general,  add  sufficient  water  to  give  a  "mushy"  mixture  just  too 
soft  to  bear  the  weight  of  a  man  when  in  place.  Pails  are  most 
convenient  for  measuring  the  water,  and  enough  pailfuls 
should  be  provided  in  advance  for  wetting  an  entire  batch. 
Do  not  use  a  hose.  In  turning  the  concrete  use  square-pointed 


tort. 


Fig.  7.    Position  of  Piles  of  Cement  and  Sand  During  Mixing. 


/Oft 


Wef  and  turn 


Fig.  8.    Position  of  Materials  During  Mixing  of  Concrete.* 
*See  footnote,  page  18. 


PLACING 
CONCRETE 
IN 
FORMS 


PLACING 
CONCRETE 
UNDER 
WATER 


shovels.  Push  the  shovel  along  the  boards  under  the  mass, 
lift  it,  then  turning  the  shovel  carefully  over  deposit  the  mate- 
rial with  a  spreading  motion.  Concrete  mixing  machines 
should  be  used  on  large  jobs  as  a  matter  of  economy. 

Place  the  concrete  in  forms  in  layers  about  6  to  12  inches 
deep  and  tamp  lightly  with  a  rammer  or  puddle  with  a  piece  of 
2  by  4-inch  joint  until  the  water  flushes  to  the  top.  Note  that 
the  concrete  must  be  well  rammed  and  spaded  to  avoid  pockets 
of  stone  forming  in  the  concrete. 

The  method  of  obtaining  a  smooth  face  on  concrete  fre- 
quently adopted  is  as  follows:  Thrust  a  spade  or  thin  paddle 
between  the  concrete  and  the  form,  moving  the  handle  to  and 
fro,  up  and  down.  This  movement  forces  the  broken  stone  in 
the  concrete  away  and  brings  a  coating  of  mortar  next  to  the 
form,  which  gives  a  smooth  surface.  Care  taken  in  manipula- 
tion of  concrete  along  the  moulds  will  be  amply  repaid  by  the 
smooth  surface  resulting,  and  the  saving  in  time  and  expense 
otherwise  made  necessary  in  plastering  over  cavities  and 
smoothing  rough  places. 

Concrete  which  is  exposed  to  the  sun  should  be  soaked  with 
water  each  day  for  a  week  or  two.  This  will  allow  the  interior 
of  the  walls  to  dry  uniformly  with  the  exterior,  and  thus 
prevent  scaling  or  cracking. 

Concrete  should  never  be  placed  under  water  if  it  possibly 
can  be  avoided,  because  the  materials  are  in  danger  of  sepa- 
rating. The  danger  of  the  fine  material  separating  from  the 
coarse  was  illustrated  in  a  little  test  made  by  the  engineers 
constructing  the  Holyoke  Dam.  A  small  batch  of  concrete 
was  mixed  in  proportions  one  part  cement  to  two  and  one- 
quarter  parts  sand  to  five  parts  stone,  and  shoveled  into  a  pail 
of  water  with  a  trowel.  The  surface  hardened  satisfactorily, 
and  after  several  months  the  water  was  poured  off  and  the 
material  taken  out.  Instead  of  being  concrete,  three  layers 
were  found.  On  top  was  a  thin  layer  of  practically  neat 
cement,  then  about  2  or  3  inches  of  mixed  sand  and  cement  in 
a  porous  mortar,  then  below  this  a  mixture  of  sand  and  stone 
as  separate  and  clean  as  before  the  concrete  was  mixed. 

This  experiment  and  other  tests  show  that  if  concrete  has 
to  be  placed  under  water  it  must  be  deposited  in  large  masses 
and  never  by  shovelfuls. 


On  small  work  put  the  concrete  in  pails,  place  a  board  over 
the  top  of  the  pail  and  lower  it  carefully  into  the  water  to  the 
bottom.  Turn  the  pail  upside  down,  carefully  remove  the 
board  and  slowly  raise  the  pail,  allowing  the  concrete  to  flow 
out.  Great  care  must  be  used  not  to  disturb  the  water  in 
which  the  concrete  is  being  placed  nor  to  touch  the  green 
concrete.  Concrete  must  never  be  placed  under  water  if  there 
is  any  current,  because  the  cement  will  be  washed  away, 
leaving  only  the  sand  and  stone. 

Another  method  for  depositing  concrete  under  water  is  to 
pass  the  concrete  slowly  through  a  spout  or  tube  which  reaches 
to  within  a  couple  of  inches  of  the  bottom  where  the  concrete 
is  to  be  placed.  The  tube  must  be  kept  full  and  the  concrete 
kept  moving  continuously  and  slowly  through  it.  On  large 
work  specially  designed  buckets  are  used  for  depositing  the 
concrete  under  water,  but  these  are  generally  operated  by  a 
derrick. 

Surface  finish  of  concrete  may  be  for  either  of  two  purposes : 
To  make  the  concrete  more  water-tight,  or  to  improve  the 
appearance.  It  is  advisable  to  leave  the  outside  surface  of  the 
concrete  just  as  it  comes  from  the  forms,  having  used  care  in 
placing  to  see  that  there  are  no  stone  pockets  or  voids ;  or  else 
to  take  off  the  skin  of  cement  so  as  to  expose  the  sand  and 
stone  and  leave  an  even  but  slightly  rough  surface. 

PURE  CEMENT  WASH.  On  exterior  surfaces  a  coat  of 
pure  cement  will  check  with  fine  hair  cracks  because  of  the 
rapid  drying  out  of  the  mortar.  However,  for  the  interior  of 
a  tank  which  will  be  kept  wet  while  in  use,  a  coat  of  neat 
cement  may  serve  to  make  the  concrete  more  water-tight. 
Put  this  on  just  as  soon  as  the  forms  are  removed,  and  take  off 
forms  as  early  as  possible.  In  small  pieces  of  concrete,  like  a 
small  trough,  the  inner  form  may  be  removed  within  two  or 
three  hours,  and  the  wash  applied  immediately.  Leave  the 
outside  forms,  however,  until  the  concrete  is  hard.  Wet  the 
inside  surface  thoroughly  and  apply  the  pure  cement  with  a 
brush  or  a  trowel. 

REMOVING  SURFACE  SKIN  OF  CEMENT  WHILE 
CONCRETE  IS  GREEN.  The  best  method  of  obtaining  a 
good  outside  finish  is  to  rub  off  the  skin  of  cement  which  comes 
to  the  surface  next  to  the  forms  and  thus  expose  the  sand  or 

37 


PLACING 

CONCRETE 

UNDER 

WATER 
(Cont'd.) 


SURFACE 
FINISH 


stone.  There  are  various  ways  of  doing  this.  The  easiest 
way  is  to  remove  the  forms  as  soon  as  the  concrete  is  set, 
which  for  a  wall  may  be  in  24  or  48  hours;  just  as  soon,  in 
fact,  as  the  concrete  will  bear  the  pressure  of  the  thumb.  Wet 
the  surface  thoroughly,  and  rub  it  either  with  a  brick,  with  a 
board,  with  a  plasterer's  wooden  float,  or  with  a  carborundum 
block.  By  this  plan  the  surface  can  be  simply  smoothed  of! 
roughnesses,  or  the  skin  of  cement  can  be  taken  off  to  leave  a 
sandy  finish,  or  by  still  further  work  the  stones  can  be  exposed. 
The  resulting  finish,  while  rough,  should  be  uniform  and 
pleasing. 

PICKED  SURFACE.  If  the  concrete  has  hardened,  the  skin 
of  cement  can  be  removed  with  a  tool.  A  stone  cutter's  bush 
hammer  can  be  used  for  this,  or  a  tool  can  be  made  with  a 
toothed  edge. 

PLASTERING.  Plastering  on  exterior  surfaces  requires 
great  care  and  skill  to  prevent  cracking  and  peeling.  The 
forms  in  which  the  concrete  is  laid  must  be  wet  instead  of  oiled. 
Roughen  the  surface,  either  when  the  concrete  is  green,  by 
rubbing  off  the  cement,  or  by  picking  the  hardened  surface 
with  an  old  hatchet  or  a  stone  axe.  Wet  thoroughly  and  apply 
as  thin  a  layer  as  possible,  about  1/16  inch  thick  is  best,  of 
mortar,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  and  one  part 
fine,  but  very  clean,  sand.  For  thick  layers,  pick  and  wet  the 
surface,  then  brush  on  a  thin  coat  of  pure  cement  grout  on  a 
small  part  of  the  surface,  and  before  this  has  begun  to  stiffen 
apply  the  plaster. 

REINFORCED  Reinforced  concrete  is  ordinary  concrete  in  which  iron  or 

CONCRETE  steej  rods  or  wire  are  imbedded.     Reinforcement  is  required 

when  the  concrete  is  liable  to  be  pulled  or  bent,  as  in  beams, 
floors,  posts,  walls  or  tanks,  because,  while  concrete  is  as 
strong  as  stone  masonry,  neither  of  these  materials  has  nearly 
so  much  strength  in  tension  as  in  compression.  Moreover, 
concrete  alone,  like  any  natural  stone,  is  brittle,  but  by 
imbedding  in  it  steel  rods  or  other  reinforcement,  the  cement 
adheres  to  the  metal  and  binds  the  particles  together  so  that 
the  reinforced  concrete  is  better  adapted  to  withstand  jar  and 
impact.  Even  railway  bridges  are  built,  not  only  in  arch  form, 
like  a  stone  arch,  but  in  some  cases  like  a  steel  girder  bridge, 
with  a  flat  reinforced  concrete  floor  supported  by  horizontal 
beams  of  the  same  material. 


Reinforcement  may  be  iron  or  steel.  Steel  is  nearly  always 
used  because  it  is  nowadays  cheaper  than  iron  and  easier  to 
buy.  The  ordinary  iron  rods,  so-called,  as  found  in  the  stores 
are  almost  always  steel. 

Round  rods  or  square  twisted  rods,  or  rods  with  special 
surfaces  designed  to  better  pervent  pulling  out  from  the  con- 
crete, are  used  in  most  of  the  important  work  in  reinforced 
concrete.  For  slabs,  metal  fabrics  like  expanded  metal  or 
woven  wire  is  frequently  used  instead  of  rods.  In  some  of  the 
smaller  structures  described  in  the  pages  which  follow,  the 
reinforcement  is  put  in  to  prevent  cracking,  and,  as  stated  in 
the  text,  almost  any  kind  of  wire  can  often  be  used.  Nearly 
every  farmer  has  fence  wire  which  is  well  adapted  for  reinforc- 
ing watering  troughs  and  for  small  pieces  of  work. 

Concrete,  like  other  materials,  shrinks  when  the  weather 
is  cold,  and  it  also  shrinks  in  setting,  so  that  a  long  wall  is! 
bound  to  have  occasional  cracks  in  it  unless  it  is  very  heavily 
reinforced  or  unless  joints  are  placed  every  30  feet  or  so. 

An  engineer  or  architect  experienced  in  reinforced  concrete 
design  should  be  employed  in  preparing  the  plans  for  houses, 
barns  or  other  large  structures,  but  by  carefully  following  the 
directions  and  specifications  in  this  booklet  small  reinforced 
concrete  construction  may  be  safely  undertaken  by  the 
inexperienced. 

The  table  which  follows  gives  the  thickness  and  reinforce- 
ment of  slabs,  and  the  dimensions  and  reinforcement  of  rein- 
forced concrete  beams  for  a  number  of  conditions  which  are 
liable  to  be  met  with  in  common  practice.  While  the  values 
are  as  low  as  should  be  adopted  without  knowing  the  local 
conditions,  complete  mathematical  calculations  of  dimensions 
should  be  made  for  large  structures,  not  only  from  the  stand- 
point of  safety,  but  also  because  of  the  saving  in  cost  of  mate- 
rial which  can  be  effected  by  fitting  each  member  in  its  proper 
place. 

Rules,  which  are  written  as  footnotes  .to  the  table,  give 
very  important  directions. 

An  invariable  rule  in  placing  steel  is  to  insert  it  in  the  face 
where  the  pull  will  come.  Thus  in  a  beam  or  slab  it  must  be 
close  to  the  bottom.  In  a  wall,  to  withstand  earth  pressure,  it 
must  be  in  the  face  nearest  the  earth.  If,  for  example,  a  beam 
were  designed  according  to  the  table,  but  the  steel  placed  in 

29 


REINFORCED 
CONCRETE 

(Cont'd.) 


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the  middle  or  top  of  the  beam  instead  of  in  the  bottom,  it  would 
certainly  break  under  a  very  light  load.  There  must  be  only 
enough  concrete  outside  of  the  steel  to  protect  it  from  rusting 
or  fire.  In  floor  or  roof  slabs  of  small  structures  this  thickness 
should  be  one-half  inch  to  three-quarters  inch  below  the 
bottom  of  the  steel,  and  for  beams  from  one  to  one  and  one- 
half  inches. 

A  typical  beam  with  its  connecting  floor  slabs,  the  concrete 
of  both  of  which  should  be  laid  at  the  same  operation,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  9.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  beam  reinforcement  consists 
of  rods  running  lengthwise  of  the  beam — one-half  or  one-third 
of  these  rods  being  bent  up  about  one-third  way  from  each  end 
and  extending  over  the  supports,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9  and  for 
the  heavier  beams  U-shaped  bars  or  stirrups  are  used  which 
pass  under  the  longitudinal  rods  and  up  on  each  side  of  the 
beam.  The  horizontal  bars  withstand  the  direct  pull  in  the 
bottom  of  the  beam  due  to  bending  when  a  load  is  placed  upon 
it ;  the  U-bars  or  stirrups  and  the  bent-up  bars  prevent  diagonal 
cracks,  which  sometimes  occur  under  loading,  and  the  bars 
passing  over  the  supports  prevent  the  cracking  of  the  beam  on 
top  at  the  ends. 

The  steel  in  the  slab  is  placed  just  above  the  bottom  surface 
at  the  center  of  the  span  and  then  bent  upward  over  the  sup- 
ports as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

Proportions  for  all  reinforced  concrete  must  not  be  leaner 
than  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  parts  clean, 
coarse  sand  and  four  parts  broken  stone  or  clean  screened 
gravel.  Maximum  size  of  broken  stone  or  gravel  should  not 
be  over  one  inch  diameter  in  order  to  pass  between  and  under 
the  steel  rods.  Consistency  of  concrete  should  be  like  heavy 
cream. 

COST  OF  CON-  The  cost  of  concrete  work  varies  considerably  on  account 
CRETE  WORK  of  tlie  manv  elements  entering  into  the  work.  For  instance, 
the  cost  of  building  the  various  structures  illustrated  in  this 
book  may  be  very  small,  as  the  work  itself  may  be  done  by 
the  owner  or  farmer  at  odd  times  or  with  comparatively  cheap 
help,  while  in  building  with  other  materials,  either  brick  or 
wood,  it  is  necessary  to  employ  carpenters  or  masons.  More- 
over, even  if  the  lumber  for  the  forms  costs  nearly  as  much  as 
the  lumber  for  a  wooden  structure,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  it 

32 


need  not  be  thrown  away,  but  may  be  used  again  for  other 
purposes.  If  hired  laborers  and  carpenters  do  the  work  it  may 
be  stated  as  a  general  rule  that  concrete  is  always  more  expen- 
sive in  first  cost  than  wood.  On  the  other  hand,  concrete  does 
not  rot,  it  does  not  burn,  and  it  does  not  have  to  be  painted,  so 
that  it  frequently  may  be  cheaper  in  the  long  run.  Besides 
this,  more  unique  and  pleasing  effects  may  be  produced. 

MATERIALS  FOR  ONE  CUBIC  YARD  OF  CONCRETE. 


PROPORTION  BY  PARTS 

Bbls. 

Bbls. 

Bbls.  Gravel 

Sand,    in 

or  Stone  in 

Cement 

Sand 

Stone  or 
Gravel 

1  Cubic 
Yard 

1  Cubic 

Yard 

1  Cubic 
Yard 

1 

1$ 

3 

2.00 

3.00 

6.00 

1 

2 

4 

1.57 

3.14 

6.28 

1 

2* 

5 

1.29 

3.23 

6.45 

1 

3 

6 

1.10 

3.30 

6.60 

FIRE  RESISTANCE.  Concrete  is  one  of  the  best  fireproof 
materials  known.  It  resists  intense  heat  better  than  iron, 
steel,  ordinary  brick  or  stone,  and  in  the  San  Francisco  and 
Baltimore  fires  it  stood  the  test  better  than  any  other  material. 
It  can  therefore  be  depended  upon  to  resist  any  ordinary  fire. 
Concrete  is  used  extensively  as  a  fire-protective  covering  for 
steel,  for  which  purpose  about  two  inches  is  necessary.  In 
reinforced  concrete  the  iron  or  steel  should  be  imbedded  one 
or  two  inches  for  protection. 

WATER  TIGHTNESS.  By  mixing  wet  and  using  pro- 
portions one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  one  and  one- 
half  parts  sand  to  three  parts  screened  gravel  and  placing  in 
one  continuous  operation,  so  that  no  surface  is  allowed  to 
harden,  or  else  by  forming  very  good  joints  as  described  on 
page  1 1 6,  concrete  is  watertight  under  ordinary  conditions. 
Long  walls  to  resist  water  pressure  must  be  well  reinforced 
to  prevent  cracks  due  to  temperature  contraction,  since  con- 
crete expands  and  contracts  with  changes  of  temperature  just 
like  other  materials. 

CORROSION  OF  METAL  REINFORCEMENT.     Concrete 

properly  proportioned  and  mixed  wet  absolutely  prevents  any 

metal  imbedded  in  it  from  rusting. 

SEA  WATER.     Concrete  resists  sea  water,   provided  it  is 

properly  proportioned  with  first-class  materials  and  is  carefully 

laid. 


EFFECT  OF 

EXTERNAL 

AGENCIES  ON 

CONCRETE 


33 


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34 


ACIDS.  After  concrete  has  thoroughly  hardened  it  resists 
acids  better  than  almost  any  other  material.  A  substance  like 
manure,  because  of  the  acid  which  it  contains,  has  been  known 
to  slightly  injure  the  surface  of  green  concrete,  but  after  the 
concrete  has  hardened  for  at  least  a  week  it  is  proof  against 
injury. 

OILS.  When  concrete  is  properly  made  and  the  surface  care- 
fully finished  and  is  hardened  before  the  oil  comes  against  the 
concrete,  it  can  be  depended  upon  to  resist  the  action  of  almost 
any  oil. 

ALKALIES.  For  use  in  the  arid  regions  where  there  is 
alkaline  ground  water,  concrete  should  be  especially  rich,  dense 
and  water-tight. 

FREEZING.  Concrete  work  should  be  avoided  so  far  as 
possible  in  freezing  weather,  as  the  frost  will  prevent  the 
bonding  of  different  layers  and  will  cause  a  thin  scale  to  peel 
off  of  the  surface  of  concrete. 

It  is  a  good  rule  to  follow,  therefore,  never  to  lay  concrete 
if  the  temperature  is  below  freezing  or  liable  to  fall  below 
freezing  in  a  day  or  two. 


CONCRETE  FENCE  POSTS  AT  SIOUX  RAPIDS,  IOWA 
35 


POSTS. 

FENCE  POSTS.  The  use  of  concrete  fence  posts  is  becoming  very  general. 
This  is  due  not  only  to  the  scarcity  and  high  price  of  good  straight  wood  posts, 
but  to  the  almost  unlimited  life  of  the  concrete  post,  its  greater  strength  and 
more  pleasing  appearance. 

Concrete  fence  posts  should  be  a  little  larger  than  wood  fence  posts,  and 
may  be  made  either  straight  for  the  whole  length  or  slightly  tapering.  Five 
or  six  inches  square  at  the  bottom  and  four  or  five  inches  square  at  the  top  is  an 
ordinary  size,  or  for  convenience  in  molding  they  may  not  be  made  exactly 
square,  say,  6  inches  by  5  inches  at  the  bottom  and  5  inches  by  4  inches  at 
the  top,  this  size  being  selected  for  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  10. 

As  a  very  slight  heaving  of  a  fence  post  by  frost  is  not  objectionable,  they 


hn. 


>J2>Copper  tV/re 


Fig.  10.     Design  of  Forms  for  Fence  Posts. 

do  not  need  to  be  placed  in  the  ground  more  than  2^2  feet,  although  if  for  any 
reason  they  should  be  absolutely  rigid  the  lower  end  should  go  below  frost 
line,  which  in  the  Northern  States  is  as  much  as  4  feet  down.  The  length  of 
the  post  is  determined  by  the  height  which  is  desired  above  the  ground. 

Posts  may  be  built  separately,  that  is,  in  a  separate  form  laid  on  the 
ground,  but  the  cheapest  way  is  to  build  forms  for  a  number  of  posts  so  that 
several  can  be  molded  at  the  same  time,  and  then  the  forms  used  for  another 
set  as  soon  as  the  concrete  has  hardened. 

36 


To  mold  a  lot  of  posts  at  one  time  build  the  forms  in  the  following  manner : 
Select  some  place  where  the  posts  can  be  left  in  their  original  position  for 
at  least  ten  days.  Level  off  the  ground  and  place  the  bottom  planks,  which 
should  be  of  i^-inch  or  2-inch  planed  lumber,  side  by  side  upon  2  or  3  cross 
sills,  making  a  solid  floor  upon  which  to  mold  the  posts.  Place  two  i-inch 
by  5-inch  boards  on  edge  parallel  to  each  other  and  the  height  of  the  posts 
apart  and  brace  them  on  the  outside  with  triangular  braces  as  shown  in  the 


CONCRETE  FENCE  POSTS  AT  FAR  ROCKAWAY,  L.  I. 

figure.  To  locate  the  center  of  first  post  stretch  a  line  from  one  side  across  to 
the  other  at  right  angles  to  the  boards  on  edge  as  indicated  by  line  AA.  At 
one  end  of  this  line  AA  measure  3  inches  each  side  of  it  for  the  bottom  of  the 
post  and  at  the  other  end  measure  2  inches  each  side  of  this  line  for  the  top  of 
the  post.  This  will  locate  the  boards  BB  for  the  sides  of  the  posts.  Nail 
these  intermediate  boards  at  the  ends  with  a  nail  or  two  to  the  two  parallel 
boards,  allowing  the  heads  to  project  so  they  can  be  pulled  out  with  a  claw 
hammer. 

Make  the  posts,  as  is  shown  in  the  sketch,  with  every  alternate  post  lying 
the  opposite  way.  By  so  doing  one  intermediate  board  serves  as  a  side  to 
two  posts,  thus  requiring  less  lumber  per  post  than  by  any  other  arrangement 

37 


of  forms.  With  this  method  of  construction  also  the  least  amount  of  ground 
area  is  required  for  molding  the  posts  and  no  bracing  is  necessary  to  support 
the  boards  for  the  sides  of  the  posts.  Triangular  i-inch  bevel  strips  may  be 
placed  on  all  edges,  as  shown  in  the  cross  section,  Fig.  10,  which  will  give  the 
posts  a  neat  and  pleasing  appearance.  These  bevel  strips  can  be  obtained 
readily  from  a  mill,  or  they  may  be  sawed  from  a  i-inch  board  by  ripping  the 
board  lengthwise.  If  desired  the  top  of  the  post  can  be  finished  with  a  taper 
by  simply  inserting  a  triangular  block,  as  shown  at  C  in  Fig.  10.  Never  plaster 
the  top  of  any  post ;  instead,  remove  the  end  form  when  the  concrete  is  green 
and  smooth  the  surface  with  a  trowel  or  float. 

If  straight  instead  of  tapering  posts  are  preferred,  the  same  kind  of  a 
form  as  has  just  been  described  can  be  used  for  molding  them  except  that 
the  intermediate  boards  B  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  two  long  parallel 
boards  instead  of  at  an  angle  to  them,  as  shown,  making  them  5  inches  apart. 
The  forms  are  now  ready  to  fill  and  the  quantity  of  materials  for  certain  size 
posts  can  be  taken  from  the  following  table : 

QUANTITY  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  FENCE   POSTS 
All  Posts  Are  4x5  Inches  at  Top;  All  Posts  are  5 x  6  Inches  at  Bottom. 

One-Half  Small  Single  Load*  of  Sand  Required  per  Barrel  of  Cement ;  One  Small    Single 

Load  *  of  Screened  Gravel  or  Stone  Required  per  Barrel  of  Cement. 

Proportion:  1  Part  "Atlas"  Portland  Cement;  2  Parts  sand; 

4  Parts  Gravel  or  Stone. 


Length  of  Posts, 
Feet 

No.    of    Posts    per    Barrel 
(4  Bags)  of  Cement 

Weight  per  Post, 
Pounds 

5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

20 
17 
14 
12 
11 

130 
160 
180 
210 

234 

*  Small  single  load=  15  cubic  feet. 

The  posts  should  be  made  with  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement, 
two  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  four  parts  broken  stone  or  gravel,  about 
i  inch  diameter  particles.  Grease  or  oil  the  form  and  fill  the  bottom  of  the 
form  with  concrete  to  a  depth  of  i  inch,  upon  which  place  immediately  two 
pieces  of  ^4-inch  round  or  steel  rods  or  No.  6  wire  i  inch  in  from  each  side 
and  running  the  full  length  of  the  post.  Then  quickly  fill  the  form  to  within 
i  inch  of  the  top  with  concrete,  tamping  the  wet  concrete  slightly  to  drive 
out  any  air  bubbles.  Next  place  two  more  rods  or  wires,  each  i  inch  from 
each  side  and  fill  in  the  rest  of  the  concrete,  spading  the  faces  of  the  posts 
next  to  the  form  boards  to  leave  a  smooth  surface,  and  lightly  trowel  the  top 
surface.  The  end  boards  and  the  boards  between  the  posts  must  not  be 
removed  until  the  concrete  is  hard  and  the  posts  should  not  be  handled  or 


moved  for  at  least  ten  days  without  danger  of  cracking  them.  They  should 
be  left  for  three  or  four  weeks  at  least  before  using  and  kept  damp  by 
sprinkling.  The  surfaces  of  the  posts  do  not  need  to  be  finished  off  in  any 
special  way,  for  they  should  be  smooth  enough  without. 

For  fastening  fence  wire  to  the  posts,  the  following  method  is  suggested: 
Take  a  piece  of  No.  12  copper  wire  12  inches  long,  bend  it  in  two  and  twist 
the  halves  together,  leaving  the  ends  free  for  about  2  inches;  these  should  be 
made  beforehand.  While  the  concrete  is  being  placed  in  the  forms  set  two 
or  three  of  these  copper  wires  in  the  concrete  the  proper  distance  for  stringing 


VIEW  OF  DELLWOOD  PARK  FENCE,  JOLIET,  ILL. 

wires  so  that  they  will  be  imbedded  in  the  post  about  4  inches  and  leave  the 
two  free  ends  to  project  from  the  post  about  2  inches.  See  cross  section  of 
post  in  Fig.  10. 

Another  very  good  method  is  to  get  a  number  of  ^-inch  or  i-inch  round 
rods  or  wood  dowells  6  or  8  inches  long  and  place  them  vertically  in  the  form 
the  proper  distance  apart  for  stringing  wires.  To  hold  them  in  place  nail  a 
strip  of  wood  across  the  top  of  the  form  beside  the  rod  and  drive  a  nail  into 
this  strip  and  bend  the  nail  around  the  rod  so  as  to  hold  it  up  against  the 
strip.  The  rods  should  be  well  greased  and  left  in  the  concrete  about  i  day, 
when  they  can  be  removed.  If  they  are  not  well  greased  it  will  be  almost 
impossible  to  remove  them  without  injuring  the  concrete.  Through  the  holes 

39 


CONCRETE  FENCE    AT  GEDNEY  FARMS,  WHITE  PLAINS,  N.  Y. 


CONCRETE  GATE  POSTS  AT  COLUMBIA,   MO. 
40 


the  fence  wire  can  be  strung,  or  a  short  piece  of  wire  can  be  run  through  and 
the  ends  twisted  around  the  running  fence  wire. 

There  are  several  other  methods  of  providing  the  same  means  of  attaching 
the  fence  wire  to  the  posts.  For  instance,  insert  in  place  of  the  copper  wire 
described  above  a  galvanized  screw  eye  and  run  the  fence  wire  through  it  or 
attach  it  to  the  screw  eye  by  means  of  wires. 

CORNER  POSTS.  Corner  posts  should  be  made  about  10  inches  square  the 
full  length  of  the  posts  and  9  feet  long.  On  account  of  the  weight  of  such  a 
large  post  it  is  easier  to  mold  the  posts  in  place,  as  they  will  weigh  about  940 
pounds,  but  if  desired  they  can  be  made  in  the  same  manner  as  the  other 
fence  posts  just  described.  Reinforce  corner  posts  with  a  ^j-inch  rod  in  each 
corner  of  the  post  instead  of  the  No.  6  wire  used  for  the  smaller  ones.  Set  a 
corner  post  at  least  3%  feet  in  the  ground.  If  special  finish  is  necessary,  refer 
to  method  of  treating  horse  blocks,  page  43. 


QUANTITY  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  CORNER  POSTS 
One-Half  Small  Single  Load*  of  Sand  Required  Per  Barrel  of  Cement;  One  Small  Single 

Load*  of  Screened  Gravel  or  Stone  Required  Per  Barrel  of  Cement. 
Proportions:  1  Part  "Atlas"  Portland  Cement  to  2  Parts  Sand  to  4  Parts  Gravel. 


SIZE   OF  POSTS 

No.  of  Posts  per 

Barrel  (4  Bags) 
Cement 

Weight  per  Post, 
Pounds 

Length,  Feet 

Top,  Inches 

Bottom,  Inches 

6 

12 

12 

2% 

900 

7 

12 

12 

iy> 

1,050 

8 

12 

12 

2Y± 

1,200 

9 

12 

12 

2 

1,350 

9 

10 

10 

3 

940 

9 

6 

6 

8 

337 

7 

24 

24 

K 

4,200 

*  Small  single  load  =15  cubic  feet. 


COST  OF  FENCE  POSTS.  Seven-foot  fence  posts  constructed  as  described 
on  page  36,  without  hiring  outside  help  so  that  the  cost  of  labor  need  not  be 
considered,  can  be  made  for  about  2oc.  to  soc.  each.  They  will  cost  from  loc. 
to  2oc.  apiece  more  if  the  cost  of  labor  is  considered. 

HITCHING  POSTS.  Hitching  posts  can  be  built  and  reinforced  in  the  same 
manner  as  finished  fence  posts.  Make  a  post  about  6  feet  long  so  that  it  will 
set  about  2^  feet  in  the  ground.  Make  forms  and  handle  the  concrete  same 
as  described  above  for  fence  posts.  Cast  a  long  ^/2-inch  diameter  iron  staple, 
holding  an  iron  ring,  in  the  top  of  the  post  by  passing  it  through  a  slot  in  the 
head  of  the  form  before  the  concrete  is  poured,  just  as  the  staple  is  placed  in 
the  clothes  post  described  on  page  following. 

41 


A  neat  and  inexpensive  round  hitching  post 
may  be  designated  as  the  "stove-pipe"  hitching 
post.  Dig  a  hole  18  inches  deep  and  10  inches 
in  diameter  in  the  ground  and  fill  with  one  part 
"ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  parts  of  clean, 
coarse  sand  and  four  parts  of  screened  gravel 
or  broken  stone.  Place  on  this  base  of  con- 
crete, before  it  has  set,  a  section  of  7-inch  stove 
pipe.  For  reinforcement  place  a  i-inch  gas  pipe 
in  the  center  of  the  stove  pipe  and  push  it  into 
the  soft  base  of  concrete.  Insert  in  top  of  post  a 
round  hitching  post  ring.  Leave  the  stove  pipe 
in  place  and  paint  it  if  desired,  which  makes  a 
very  neat  and  attractive  post.  When  the  stove 
pipe  rusts  off,  the  concrete  post  still  remains  as 
attractive  as  ever. 


CONCRETE  CLOTHES  POSTS  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 

42 


STOVE-PIPE  HITCHING  POST 
AT  COLUMBIA.  MO 

CLOTHES  POSTS. 
Clothes  posts  may  be 
made  in  the  same  general 
way  as  the  finished  fence 
posts,  except  that  they 
should  be  6  inches  square, 
9  feet  long,  and  rein- 
forced with  %-inch  rods 
in  each  corner  instead  of 
No.  6  wire.  Imbed  an 
iron  staple  y2  inch  in 
diameter  in  the  top  of 
the  post  for  a  clothes 
line.  This  can  be  done 
by  cutting  a  hole  in  the 
head  of  the  form  large 
enough  to  pass  the  eye 
of  the  staple  through, 
then  placing  the  staple 
before  the  concrete  is 
poured  and  hold  it  in 
place  by  a  wad  of  paper 
to  plug  the  hole.  An- 
other plan  is  to  form  a 


hole  near  the  top  of  the  post  by  placing  a  greased  dowel  in  the  form  before 
pouring  the  concrete. 

HORSE   BLOCKS. 

Horse  blocks  can  be  built  solid  in  place. 

Make  a  form  or  box,  without  a  bottom,  36  inches  long,  18  inches  wide  and 
12  inches  deep,  inside  dimensions.  Grease  this  form  and  fill  with  concrete, 
one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse 
sand  and  five  parts  screened  gravel  or  broken  stone. 

It  is  best  not  to  plaster  the  top  surface  or  sides  of  the  block,  for  if  it  is 
plastered  it  is  apt  to  crack  or  peel  off.  The  top  surface  should  be  smoothed  off 
with  a  trowel  when  the  concrete  is  first  laid,  then  in  a  few  hours,  as  soon  as  it 
has  begun  to  stiffen,  scrape  off  any  light  colored  scum  with  a  wire  brush  or 


HORSE  BLOCK,  HITCHING  POST  AND  SIDEWALK  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 

horse  curry  comb,  and  trowel  the  surface  again,  preferably  with  a  wood  float, 
but  using  no  fresh  mortar.  The  form  should  be  removed  the  next  day,  or  as 
soon  as  the  concrete  is  hard  enough  not  to  show  thumb  marks,  and  while  the 
concrete  is  green  rub  down  the  sides  with  a  wood  float  or  brick.  Keep  damp 
by  sprinkling  for  a  week.  If  the  surface  thus  left  is  not  good  enough,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  plaster  it,  even  though  at  the  risk  of  checking  and  cracking. 
To  do  this  pick  the  surface  with  a  stone  axe,  wet  thoroughly  and  trowel  on  a 
coat  of  mortar  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  one  part  clean,  fine 
sand,  making  the  layer  not  over  1-16  inch  thick. 

43 


The  weight  of  a  horse  block  of  the  above  dimensions  is  about  675  pounds 
and  about  two  bags  of  cement  are  needed. 

WATERING   TROUGHS. 

One  of  the  most  useful  and  essential  devices  about  a  farm  is  the  small 
watering  trough,  and  when  made  of  concrete  it  is  not  only  of  pleasing  appear- 
ance, but  is  practically  indestructible.  Moreover,  if  an  inlet  pipe  with  float 
valve  connection  has  been  provided  it  needs  absolutely  no  attention. 

Watering  troughs,  like  many  other  concrete  structures,  may  be  made 
without  steel  reinforcement,  but  if  so  constructed  the  walls  must  be  half  again 
as  thick  as  when  reinforced,  and  even  then  are  more  apt  to  crack.  The  size 
and  capacity  of  the  trough  varies  with  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  used,  but 


WATERING  TANK,  BOODY,  ILL. 

for  troughs  up  to  about  10  feet  long  by  2  feet  wide  by  2  feet  deep  the  thickness 
of  the  reinforced  walls  should  be  about  5  inches. 

It  is  essential  that  a  watering  trough  be  water-tight.  The  conditions  for 
obtaining  a  trough  which  will  not  leak  are  (i)  a  richer  mix  of  concrete  than 
is  required  for  ordinary  work;  (2)  enough  water  in  mixing  to  give  a  sloppy 
concrete,  and  (3)  the  placing  of  all  the  concrete  at  one  operation.  It  is 
extremely  difficult  to  make  any  structure  water-tight  unless  all  three  of  the 
above  conditions  are  complied  with. 

44 


FIELD  TROUGH  AT  GEDNEY  FARMS,  WHITE  PLAINS,  N.  Y. 


WATERING  TROUGH  AT 
45 


HILL,  L.  I. 


The  best  mix  of  concrete  to  use  varies  with  the  sand  and  gravel  employed, 
but  generally  speaking  one  part  of  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  one  and  one- 
half  parts  of  clean,  coarse  sand  to  three  parts  of  screened  gravel  or  broken 
stone  are  advised,  or  if  gravel  from  the  natural  bank  is  used  without  screening, 
one  part  of  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  three  parts  of  natural  bank  run 
gravel.  If  sand  alone  is  available  use  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to 
two  parts  sand. 

The  amount  of  excavation  necessary  for  the  foundation  of  a  trough  depends 
upon  the  size.  For  a  small  trough  level  off  the  earth  and  tamp  the  ground 
well  before  placing  any  concrete,  but  for  a  trough  of  large  capacity  a  solid 


WATERING  TROUGH,  DECATUR,  ILL. 

foundation  should  be  used.  To  construct  a  solid  and  reliable  foundation, 
excavate  about  12  inches  and  fill  in  6  inches  with  either  cinders  or  gravel  from 
which  the  sand  has  been  screened,  tamp  this  well  and  fill  in  6  inches  of 
concrete,  using  only  half  the  proportion  of  cement  to  sand  and  stone  that  is 
used  for  the  trough  itself. 

Next  place  the  outer  forms  in  position,  brace  and  oil  them  well  and  mix 
the  concrete  according  to  the  directions  given  on  page  24. 

Place  a  2*/2-inch  layer  of  concrete  in  the  form,  and  immediately  after 

46 


placing  and  before  the  concrete  has  set,  place  a  sheet  of  woven  fence  wire  or 
some  other  wire  fabric  over  the  concrete,  bending  it  up  so  that  it  will  come 
to  within  one  inch  of  the  top  of  the  forms  at  the  sides  and  ends.  Place  2% 
inches  more  of  the  concrete  in  the  bottom  and  ram  lightly  to  bring  the  mortar 
to  the  surface  and  smooth  it  off  evenly.  Have  the  inner  form  all  ready  and 
as  soon  as  the  base  is  laid  and  before  it  has  begun  to  stiffen  set  it,  taking  care 
to  keep  it  at  equal  distances  from  the  sides,  and  then  immediately  fill  in  the 
concrete  between  the  outer  and  inner  forms  to  the  required  height.  The 
time  at  which  to  remove  the  form  depends  upon  several  conditions,  such  as 
the  wetness  of  the  concrete,  the  weather  and  the  temperature,  but  generally 


FIELD  WATERING  TROUGH,  KNOXVILLE,  IOWA 

such  forms  can  be  removed  within  two  days.  After  removing  the  forms,  wet 
the  concrete  thoroughly  and  paint  the  inside  surface  with  pure  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement  mixed  as  thick  as  cream.  Protect  the  trough  from  the  sun 
until  it  is  filled  with  water  keeping  it  wet  for  about  a  week.  Do  not  fill  with 
water  until  a  week  after  laying  the  concrete. 

The  outside  surface  can  be  finished  off  very  satisfactory  if  done  as  soon  as 
the  forms  are  removed  by  wetting  the  surface  thoroughly  with  a  whitewash 
brush,  using  plenty  of  water,  and  rubbing  it  down  with  a  wood  float  or  board 

47 


or  a  brick.  This  will  remove  the  marks  of  the  form  boards  and  make  a  very 
pleasing  appearance.  (See  directions  for  Finishing  Concrete  Surfaces,  page 
27.)  A  long  trough  is  difficult  to  build  because  of  the  great  amount  of  rein- 
forcement required  to  prevent  shrinkage  cracks. 

Where  the  trough  is  to  be  connected  with  an  inlet  and  outlet  pipe,  it  is 
best  to  place  the  necessary  pipes  and  connections  in  the  forms  before  laying 
the  concrete.  This  will  save  a  great  deal  of  labor  and  trouble,  but  where 
these  connections  cannot  be  made  before  placing  the  concrete,  the  holes  for 
them  may  be  provided  in  the  concrete  by  inserting  greased  wooden  plugs  irt 
the  forms  in  place  of  the  pipes.  These  plugs  can  be  easily  withdrawn  as  soon 
as  the  concrete  has  set. 


Fig.  ii.     Design  of  Forms  for  Rectangular  Trough. 

The  design  of  forms  for  a  rectangular  trough,  shown  above,  is  economical 
in  that  the  lumber  for  the  outside  forms  does  not  need  to  be  cut  unless 
desired,  and  can  therefore  be  used  for  any  other  purpose,  being  practically 
as  good  as  new. 

48 


WATER  TROUGH  AT  MONROE,  N.  J. 


OLD  BOILER  TANK  WATERING  TROUGH  AT  COLUMBIA,  MO. 

49 


Were  it  not  for  the  more  complicated  form  work,  the  circular  shaped  tank 
would  be  built  oftener  because  of  the  attractive  effects  which  can  be  produced. 

A  simple  and  attractive  circular  form  for  a  small  watering  trough  is  shown 
in  Fig.  12.  It  is  made  as  follows: 


Jbout  6 in.. 


'low  Pipe 
"Front  Wagon 
Wheel  Tire. 


Fig.  12.     Design  of  Forms  for  Circular  Trough. 

Take  an  old  wagon  or  buggy  tire,  lay  it  on  the  ground,  and  mark  a  line  on 
the  inside  of  the  tire.  Excavate  inside  of  tire  6  inches  deep  and  place  endwise 
three  i  by  2-inch  stakes  about  3  feet  long  on  the  inside  of  the  tire.  Raise 
the  tire  2  feet  above  the  ground  to  make  the  total  inside  depth  of  the  trough 
3  feet,  and  drive  a  nail  in  each  of  the  three  stakes  under  the  tire  to  support  it 
at  this  height.  Fill  in  the  circle  between  these  three  stakes  with  slats  or 
flooring  boards  set  on  end  and  place  a  nail  in  each  under  the  tire  to  hold  them 
at  the  top.  To  hold  them  at  the  bottom  tamp  a  little  sand  at  the  foot  of  the 
stakes.  Mix  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  one  and  one-half  parts 
of  clean,  coarse  sand  to  three  parts  of  screened  gravel  or  broken  stone  and 
lay  about  4  inches  of  concrete.  Place  the  reinforcement  as  described  for 
rectangular  troughs,  running  it  up  on  the  sides  so  that  it  is  about  2  inches 
from  the  outside  surface.  After  placing  the  reinforcement  the  rest  of  the 
operations  are  the  same  as  for  a  rectangular  trough.  The  inside  form  may 
be  made  by  sawing  a  barrel  in  two,  nailing  each  of  the  barrel  staves  to  the 
head  of  the  barrel,  and  removing  all  but  the  top  hoop.  The  construction  of 
the  inside  barrel  form  is  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  12.  Oil  the  forms  well  before 
placing  the  concrete. 

The  materials  required  for  a  circular  trough  like  this  are  3^2  bags  of 
"ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  and  i  single  load  of  sand  and  gravel.  Two 
men  can  make  a  trough  in  about  one-half  day  each,  and  the  cost  is  approxi- 
mately $4.00  complete. 

So 


A  single  load  of  sand  or  gravel  is  considered  as  20  cubic  feet,  or  3^  of  a 
cubic  yard,  and  a  double  load  as  40  cubic  feet,  or  nearly  i^  cubic  yards. 

A  method  of  constructing  a  circular  trough  where  a  cut  off  section  of  an 
old  boiler  was  used,  not  only  for  the  exterior  form,  but  also  as  the  outside 
finish,  is  shown  on  page  49.  This  style  of  trough,  although  rather  attractive, 
is  more  expensive  than  the  one  just  described  on  account  of  the  cut  off  boiler 
section,  which  in  this  case  was  about  $10.00. 


DIPPING  TANK  AT  CHILLICOTHE,  OHIO 

HOG  TROUGHS.  A  desirable  hog  trough  can  be  made  by  building  a 
bottomless  box  6  feet  long  and  12  inches  broad  by  12  inches  deep.  From  a 
2-inch  plank  saw  out  two  triangles  having  a  base  of  12  inches  and  a  height  of 
8  inches.  Place  these  5  feet  6  inches  apart  and  nail  a  plank  i  inch  thick  on 
each  side  of  the  triangle.  Place  the  inverted  V-shaped  trough  thus  made  inside 


the  bottomless  box  and  put  small  triangular  strips  around  the  edges  to  make 
a  square  edge.  (See  Fig.  No.  13.)  Grease  the  form  thoroughly  and  fill  the 
space  left  with  concrete  mixture,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  and 
three  parts  clean  sand  or  sandy  gravel,  tamp  lightly,  and  smooth  off  to  top  of 
box.  Let  stand  until  dry.  Remove  the  inner  forms  within  3  or  4  hours,  and 
paint  the  inside  with  pure  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  mixed  as  thick 
as  cream. 


Fig.  13.     Forms  for  Hog  Troughs. 

Should  a  trough  with  a  round  bottom  be  desired,  an  inner  form  can  be  made 
by  sawing  a  log  the  right  length,  stripping  it  of  bark,  and  splitting  in  half. 
Put  this  in  the  bottomless  box  described  above,  flat  side  down  (Fig.  No.  13), 
grease  well  and  proceed  as  with  triangular  trough. 

SLOP  TANKS. 

Every  farm  should  have  one  or  more  slop  tanks,  in  order  to  heat  the 
slop  and  prevent  it  from  freezing,  so  that  the  cattle  can  be  fed  no  matter  how 
cold  it  may  be. 

Slop  tanks  of  concrete  have  proved  satisfactory.  A  concrete  slop  tank 
should  be  made  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  two  and  one-half 
parts  clean,  coarse  sand  to  five  parts  of  screened  gravel  or  stone.  The  size 
shown  in  Fig.  14  will  require  12  bags  of  cement,  i^/2  single  loads  of  sand  (20 
cubic  feet  per  singe  load)  and  3  single  loads  of  screened  gravel,  or  better  still, 
clean  cinders. 

A  36-inch  iron  kettle,  having  a  capacity  of  75  gallons,  costs  about  $7.00  in 
the  city  market,  to  which  the  freight  must  be  added.  The  forms  are  very 
simple,  and  can  be  easily  made  by  a  man  in  a  day.  The  inner  form  need  not 
be  removed,  but  can  be  burnt  out  the  first  time  a  fire  is  built  in  it.  The  tank 
must  be  well  reinforced  in  order  to  keep  it  from  cracking,  due  to  the  difference 
in  temperature  to  which  the  tank  is  subject.  The  firing  is  done  from  the  door 
left  in  the  front  and  the  stack  takes  care  of  the  draft.  Do  not  build  a  fire 
in  the  tank  until  the  concrete  has  set  for  at  least  two  weeks. 


djn  sfovep/pe 


Long/ fuel/net/     *Secf/o/7 

Fig.  14.    Concrete  Slop  Tank. 


53 


FERTILIZING  TANKS. 

Fertilizing  tanks  should  be  made  about  the  shape  of  and  a  little  larger 
than  a  barrel.  If  carefully  made  they  will  withstand  the  rough  usage  to 
which  they  are  subjected  by  being  pulled  from  place  to  place  on  drags,  and 
are  unaffected  by  the  fertilizing  fluids.  Make  the  tank  about  2^/2  inches  thick 
and  well  reinforced.  As  soon  as  inside  form  is  removed  wet  and  brush  with  a 
layer  of  pure  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  of  the  consistency  of  thin  cream 
to  make  it  water-tight.  Keep  the  inside  wet  until  it  is  to  be  used. 


SLOP  TANK  AT  MORTON,  ILL. 

RAIN    LEADERS. 

Rain  leaders  or  gutters  are  best  constructed  of  concrete  because  they  can 
be  made  for  a  very  small  cost,  need  no  forms,  are  indestructible,  and  very 
attractive. 

Excavate  a  trench  4  inches  deep  by  9  inches  wide  in  the  sand  or  dirt  from 
the  end  of  the  rain  conductor  to  the  required  distance  from  the  building.  Make 
a  small  batch  of  concrete,  in  proportions  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement 
to  four  parts  unscreened  sand  and  gravel,  and  fill  the  trench,  hollowing  out 
the  surface  and  troweling  a  little  to  form  the  trough.  The  water  may  be 
carried  under  the  surface  if  desired  by  digging  a  deeper  trench,  placing  it  in  a 

54 


FERTILIZING  TANK,  GREENHOUSE  AND  RUSTIC  SEAT  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 


RAIN  LEADERS,  DUMONT,  N.  J. 
55 


length  of  tin  or  sheet-iron  pipe  and  surrounding  this  with  concrete.    When  the 
pipe  rusts  out,  the  concrete  tube  will  still  remain. 

RETAINING  WALLS. 

Concrete  retaining  walls  in  most  localities  cost  much  less  than  rubble 
masonry.  The  design  of  the  retaining  walls  shown  in  Fig.  15  is  what  is  known 
as  the  gravity  section,  which  means  that  the  earth  pressure  is  resisted  by  the 
weight  of  the  wall.  The  following  table  gives  the  necessary  dimensions  and 


RETAINING  WALL  AT  DUMONT,  N,.  J. 

the  amount  of  materials  per  foot  of  length  of  wall.  The  amount  of  material  is 
figured,  assuming  that  the  concrete  is  made  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement,  two  and  one-half  parts  of  clean,  coarse  sand,  and  five  parts  of 
screened  gravel  or  stone.  The  foundation,  as  shown,  is  taken  4  feet  below 
the  ground  level.  In  the  Southern  States,  3  feet,  or  even  2  feet,  will  be 
sufficient  to  get  below  the  frost  line. 

The  exposed  side  or  face  of  the  retaining  wall  can  be  finished  off  in  the 
same  manner  as  described  on  page  27.  The  top  surface  must  not  be  plastered 
or  it  will  crack  and  is  apt  to  peel  off.  The  surface  should  be  smoothed  off  with 
a  trowel  when  the  concrete  is  first  laid,  then  as  soon  as  it  has  begun  to  stiffen 
scrape  off  any  light-colored  scum  with  a  wire  brush  or  old  curry  comb,  wet 
slightly,  and  trowel  it,  preferably  with  a  wood  float,  but  using  no  fresh  mortar. 

56 


Fig.  15.     Design  for  Retaining  Wall. 

DIMENSIONS  OF  RETAINING  WALLS  AND  QUANTITY  OF  MATERIALS 
FOR  DIFFERENT  HEIGHTS  OF  WALL. 

Proportions:  1  Part  "Atlas"  Portland  Cement  to  2} 2  Parts  Sand  to  5  Parts  Gravel  or  Stone. 

(See  Figure  15.) 


AMOUNT    OF    MATERIALS    PER 

Height  of 
Wall 

Total 

Thickness 

Thickness 
at 

Thickness 

ONE  FT.  LENGTH  OF  WALL 

Above 
Ground 

Height 
of  Wall 

at 
Base 

Ground 
Level 

at 
Top 

Cement 

Sand 

Gravel  or 

H 

B 

A 

Stone 

Feet 

Feet 

Ft.      In. 

Ft.     In. 

Inches 

Bags 

Cu.  Ft. 

Cu.  Ft. 

2 

6 

2          2 

1        6 

10 

1  % 

43^ 

9 

3 

7 

2          5 

1        7^> 

10 

2  i/o 

5  3/0 

11 

4 

8 

2          9 

1      11 

12 

3 

7 

14 

5 

9 

3          2 

2        1 

12 

3/^ 

9 

19 

6 

10 

3          6 

2        4^ 

15 

4M 

1  1  3^ 

23 

7 

11 

3        10 

2        8 

18 

6 

14 

28 

8 

12 

4          2 

2      10 

18 

7 

16MJ 

33 

Note:— A  large  single  load  of  sand  or  gravel  is  about  20  cubic  feet. 
A  large  double  load  of  sand  or  gravel  is  about  40  cubic  feet. 

57 


DAMS. 

If  a  dam  is  to  be  built  more  than  4  or  5  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  stream, 
an  engineer  should  be  called  upon  to  design  it  and  look  after  the  construction. 

For  an  ice  pond  or  a  pond  for  watering  stock  a  concrete  dam  may  be  built 
across  a  brook  without  difficulty. 

If  possible,  dig  a  temporary  trench  so  as  to  carry  the  water  around  the  dam 
while  it  is  being  built.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  run  the  water  through  a  wooden 
trough  in  the  middle  of  the  dam,  and  after  the  wall,  each  side  of  it,  is  finished, 


DAM  AT  ARLINGTON,  VA. 

carry  the  forms  across  the  opening,  and  make  these  tight  enough  so  that  the 
water  is  quiet  between  them ;  then  place  the  concrete  as  described  on  page  26. 
Dig  a  trench  across  the  stream  slightly  wider  than  the  width  of  the  base  of 
the  dam,  carrying  it  down  about  18  inches  or  2  feet  below  the  bed  of  the  brook, 
or  if  the  ground  is  soft,  deep  enough  to  reach  good,  hard  bottom.  In  case  the 
earth  is  firm  enough  for  a  foundation,  but  is  porous  either  under  the  dam  or 
each  side  of  it,  sheet  piling  consisting  of  2-inch  tongued-and-grooved  plank 
can  be  pointed  and  driven  with  a  heavy  wooden  mallet  so  as  to  prevent  the 
water  flowing  under  or  around  the  dam.  Build  the  forms  so  as  to  make  the 

58 


wall  of  the  dimensions  shown  in  the  table.     Wet  them  thoroughly,  then  mix 
and  place  the  concrete  as  described  on  page  24. 

Use  proportions  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  two  parts  clean, 
coarse  sand  to  four  parts  screened  gravel  or  broken  stone. 

Take  special  care  to  make  the  concrete  water-tight  by  using  a  wet  mix. 
If  possible,  lay  the  entire  dam  on  one  day,  not  allowing  one  layer  to  set  before 

the  next  one  is  placed.  If  it  is  necessary  to  lay 
the  concrete  on  two  different  days,  scrape  off 
the  top  surface  of  the  old  concrete  in  the  morn- 
ing, thoroughly  soak  it  with  water,  and  spread 
on  a  layer  about  J4  inch  thick  of  pure  cement 
of  the  consistency  of  thick  cream,  then  place 
the  fresh  concrete  before  this  cement  has  begun 
to  stiffen. 

If  the  forms  on  the  lower  side  of  the  dam 
are  well  braced,  the  forms  on  the  upstream  side 
may  be  removed  in  three  or  four  days,  and  the 
pond  allowed  to  fill.    The  forms  on  the  down- 
stream face  should  be  left  in  place 
well  braced  for  two  or  three  weeks. 
No  finish  need  be  given  to  the  sur- 
face. 


Fig.  1 6.     Design  for  Dam. 

DIMENSIONS  FOR  SMALL  DAMS  AND  QUANTITY  OF  MATERIALS  FOR 

DIFFERENT  HEIGHTS  OF  DAMS. 

Proportions:  1  Part  "Atlas"  Portland  Cement  to  2  Parts  Sand  to  4  Parts  Gravel  or  Stone. 

(See  Fig.  16.) 


Height 
Above 
Bed  of 
Stream 

Depth 
Below 
Bed  of 
Stream* 

Thickness 
at  Base 

Thickness 
at  Top 

AMOUNT  OF  MATERIALS  PER  FOOT 
OF  LENGTH  OF  DAM 

Cement 

Sand 

Gravel  or 
Stone 

Feet 
H 

Feet 
G 

Feet 
B 

Feet 
T 

Bags 

Cu.  Ft. 

Cu.  Ft. 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

IK 
Ifcj 

1H 

2 
2 

1 

1 
2 
2 

2K 

3 

1 
1 
1H 

iH 
iH 

\y> 

H 

1 

134 

2M 
3^ 

iiS 

% 
1M 

4 
5 
6% 
8% 

IK 
3 
8 
10 
13  K 

Hi! 

*  Make  deeper  if  necessary  to  get  a  good  foundation. 
Note: — A  large  single  load  of  sand  or  gravel  is  about  20  cubic  feet. 
A  larg«  double  load  of  sand  or  gravel  is  about  40  cubic  feet. 

59 


WALLS. 

Concrete  walls  are  everywhere  being  built  in  preference  to  stone,  on 
account  of  the  lower  cost  and  thinner  walls  which  are  usually  required.  Unless 
stone  can  be  laid  at  practically  no  expense,  the  concrete  is  cheaper. 

Every  wall  should  have  a  footing,  that  is,  a  base  wider  than  the  wall  it 
supports,  and  must  be  carried  down  below  the  frost  line.  The  depth  of  such 
footings,  therefore,  must  be  varied  according  to  the  section  of  country  in  which 
the  work  is  being  done.  In  general,  they  should  be  about  4  feet  below  the 
ground  level  in  the  Northern  and  Middle  States,  and  about  3  feet  in  the 
Southern  States,  while  in  very  mild  climates  2  feet  will  be  sufficient.  The 
footing  should  be  not  less  than  4  to  6  inches  thick  and  should  extend  about  the 
same  distance  each  side  of  the  wall. 


HOUSE  FOUNDATION  AT  SUMMIT,  N.  J. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  foundation  is  not  placed  on  a  soft  and 
yielding  soil.  Where  the  soil  is  unsuitable,  either  excavate  until  rock  or  a 
better  material  is  found,  fill  in  up  to  frost  line  with  gravel  and  tamp  it  well 
while  placing.  When  there  is  any  danger  of  this  filling  of  gravel  forming  a 
pocket  in  which  the  water  will  accumulate,  dig  a  ditch  away  from  the  wall  so 
that  the  water  will  run  off. 

CELLAR  AND  BASEMENT  WALLS.  Cellar  or  basement  walls  must 
withstand  the  earth  pressure  that  comes  upon  them.  This  pressure  varies 
with  the  depth  of  the  cellar  or  basement,  and  hence  the  thickness  of  the  walls 

60 


CONCRETE  HOUSE  AT  DECATUR,  ILL. 


CONCRETE  HOUSE  NEAR  MORTON,  ILL. 
6l 


should  vary  with  the  depth  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 

THICKNESSES    OF   WALLS   AND    QUANTITIES   OF   MATERIALS   FOR    DIFFERENT 

HEIGHTS  OF  BASEMENTS. 


Proportions:  1  Part  "Atlas  "  Portland  Cement  to 

Gravel  or  Stone. 


Parts  of  Sand  to  5  Parts  of 


Depth  of 

Cement  per 

Sand  per 

Gravel  or 

Height 

Foundation 

Thickness 

Thickness 

10  Ft.  of 

10  Ft.  of 

Stone  per 

of 

Below 

of  Wall 

of  Wall 

Length  of 

Length  of 

10  Ft.  of 

Basement 

Ground 

at  Bottom 

at  Top 

Wall 

Wall 

Length  of 

Level 

Wall 

Feet 

Feet 

Inches 

Inches 

Bags 

Cubic  Feet 

Cubic  Feet 

6 

4 

6 

6 

6 

14  H 

29 

8 

6 

10 

8 

12 

29 

58 

10 

8 

15 

10 

24 

57 

114 

The  thicknesses  are  less  than  for  a  retaining  wall  out  of  doors  because  the 
weight  of  the  building  and  the  floor  timbers  strengthen  it.  The  back  of  the 
wall  may  batter  or  slope  to  save  concrete.  If  vertical  use  bottom  thickness  for 
the  full  height.  The  earth  must  not  be  filled  in  against  the  back  of  the  wall 
until  three  or  four  weeks  after  placing  the  concrete  unless  the  forms  and 
bracing  are  left  in  place  in  front. 


a-  Fig.  17.     Cellar  Wall  Forms. 
62 


Where  there  is  no  earth  pressure  against  the  wall  let  the  forms  remain 
not  less  than  24  hours,  or  until  the  concrete  will  withstand  the  pressure  of 
the  thumb. 

Fig.  17  illustrates  a  simple  design  for  cellar  or  foundation  walls:  (a)  of 
the  figure  represents  view  of  an  ordinary  form,  2-inch  by  4-inch  braces  being 
attached  to  the  studs  as  braces;  the  form  sides  do  not  extend  to  the  bottom 
so  as  to  allow  the  concrete  to  flow  out  and  form  a  spread  footing;  (b)  repre- 
sents a  wall  for  which  the  bank  of  earth  serves  as  one  side  of  the  form.  This 
condition  may  occur  when  the  soil  is  of  a  clayey  nature,  which  does  not  cave 
in,  or  where  the  new  wall  is  being  built  against  an  old  one. 


CONCRETE  BARN  AT  TAMPICO,  ILL. 

Cellar  or  basement  walls  should  be  laid  with  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement  to  two  and  one-half  parts  coarse  sand  and  five  parts  of  broken  stone 
or  screened  gravel. 

As  concrete  is  the  best  material  for  cellar  walls  or  footings  of  any  kind,  it 
is  often  used  for  this  purpose  even  where  the  rest  of  the  building  is  of  wood 
or  any  other  material.  The  building  foundation  should  be  brought  up  to  the 
required  height  above  the  ground  level.  To  attach  the  wood  superstructure  to 
the  concrete  foundation  place  on  the  concrete,  imbedding  it  in  mortar,  the 
wood  sill,  which  is  made  with  the  ends  halved  and  bolted  together.  In  the 
West,  where  the  winds  are  very  strong,  this  sill  must  be  bolted  to  the  concrete ; 
this  is  done  by  placing  occasional  bolts  in  the  concrete  when  laying  it,  letting 

63 


the  nut  end  protrude  above  the  foundation  to  bolt  through  the  sill.  Holes  can 
then  be  bored  in  the  sill  to  fit  over  the  protruding  bolts  and  the  nuts  placed, 
thus  firmly  securing  it. 


Fig.  1 8.     Wall  Forms. 

WALLS  ABOVE  CELLAR  OR  BASEMENT.  Concrete  walls  above  the 
cellar  may  be  built  either  as  a  single  solid  wall  or  as  two  walls  with  an  air 
space  between  them.  Such  an  air  space  renders  the  building  less  subject  to 
changes  of  temperature  and  more  completely  moisture  proof,  but  it  is  more 
expensive. 

A  solid  concrete  wall  6  inches  thick  is  at  least  equivalent  to  12  inches 
of  brick.    Walls  6  inches  in  thickness  should  be  reinforced  with  vertical  rods 


WAR  N ING 

Many  people  have  been  confused 
by  the  meaning  of  Portland 
Cement  and  accept  any  cement 
bearing  the  word  "Portland." 
The  word  " Portland"  signifies 
only  the  kind  of  cement,  but  does 
not  designate  the  brand. 

Specify  the  word  "  ATLAS" 
when  buying  cement  and  you 
will  get  the  best. 

There  is  but  one  grade  of 
ATLAS  Portland  CEMENT— 
the  best  that  can  be  made — the 
same  for  everybody. 


This  Trade  Mark    is  on  every   barrel  and   every  bag  of 

ATLAS    Portland    CEMENT 


PWIUHD  '^ 

ATLAS) 


The  Directions  given  in  this  book  have  been 
prepared,  based  upon  the  use  of 

ATLAS    Portland    CEMENT 

which  is  of  uniform  strength  and  quality,  and 
made  from  genuine  Portland  Cement  Materials 
only.  It  contains  no  furnace  slag. 

Accept  no  substitute. 

The  U.  S.  Government  purchased  4,500,000 
barrels  of  ATLAS  Portland  CEMENT  for  use 
in  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal. 


J4  inch  in  diameter  placed  18  inches  apart  and  with  horizontal  rods  Y$  inch  in 
diameter  placed  12  inches  apart.  Additional  rods  must  be  placed  at  corners 
and  diagonally  across  the  corners  of  all  openings.  Walls  of  small  buildings, 
such  as  hen  houses,  may  be  made  4  inches  thick  with  the  same  reinforcement 
described.  Where  hollow  wall  construction  is  used,  make  each  of  the  walls 
4  inches  thick  and  about  9  inches  apart,  and  tie  together  with  galvanized-iron 
strips,  or  place  piers  of  concrete  4  feet  apart  to  connect  the  two  together. 
Where  such  piers  are  used  they  are  built  at  the  same  time  as  the  two  walls, 
making  practically  one  wall  with  air  chambers  at  regular  intervals.  A  very 
simple  method  to  construct  a  hollow  wall  is  by  using  2-inch  planed  plank,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  31  (p.  102). 


Fig.  19.     Hollow  Wall  Forms.* 


Fig.  1 8  shows  a  design  of  wall  forms  for  building  a  solid  wall  of  any  height. 
The  form  sections  are  each  made  2  feet  high  and  the  length  depends  upon  the 
length  of  boards  at  hand.  A  2-foot  section  made  of  i-inch  boards  10  feet  long 
weighs  55  pounds,  which  can  therefore  be  handled  easily  by  one  man.  The 
cleats  are  made  to  lap  over  the  top  of  the  form  i%  to  2  inches,  in  order  to 
catch  the  next  section  placed  on  top  of  the  one  just  filled  with  concrete.  No- 
tice, also,  that  the  cleat  at  one  end  projects  beyond  the  form  bracing  so  as  to 
catch  the  next  section  and  hold  it  in  place.  Use  bolts  for  holding  the  forms 
together,  as  they  are  better  than  wires,  which  cut  into  the  cleats  and  spring  the 
forms  apart.  The  bolt  holes  left  in  the  wall,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18,  are  a 
means  of  constructing  a  very  efficient  and  cheap  scaffolding.  All  bolts  should 

*See  Footnote  p.  18. 

65 


CONCRETE  POSTS  FOR  SUPPORTING  TROLLEY  FOR  LITTER  CARRIER  AT  NEWBURGH,  N.  Y. 

be  well  greased  so  that  they  can  be  readily  removed.  After  completing  the 
wall  the  bolt  holes  can  be  filled  with  mortar  mixed  in  the  same  proportion  as 
the  concrete  so  that  the  color  will  be  the  same  as  the  wall. 

Sometimes  a  building  is  built  with  a  wood  superstructure  on  top  of 
concrete  walls  which  are  only  from  four  to  eight  feet  above  the  ground.  In 
this  case  the  wood  superstructure  can  be  attached  to  the  concrete  walls  in  the 
same  manner  as  described  on  page  63  for  connecting  a  wood  building  to  a 
concrete  foundation. 


66 


COLUMNS. 

Excavate  below  frost  and  build  forms  2  feet  square  to  within  6  inches  of 
surface  of  ground.  Fill  with  concrete,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement, 
two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  five  parts  broken  stone  or 
screened  gravel,  not  over  one  inch  in  size,  and  tamp  or  puddle  carefully.  From 
the  center  of  this  foundation  build  a  hollow  form  one  foot  square  and  to  desired 
height,  and  fill  with  concrete  of  same  mixture.  Before  the  form  is  filled — in 
fact,  before  setting  it — place  four  steel  bars  ^4  inch  in  diameter  ver- 
tically so  that  they  are  about  2  inches  inside  the  corners,  and  around  them, 


Fig.  20.     Column  Form. 


at  intervals  of  one  foot,  wind  loops  of  ^-inch  or  ^-inch  wire,  tying  these  to 
the  steel  rods  with  fine  wire.  Make  the  concrete  soft  and  mushy,  so  that  it 
will  just  flow,  and,  as  it  is  poured  into  the  top  of  the  mold,  work  a  long  paddle, 
made  like  the  oar  of  a  rowboat,  against  the  forms  to  force  the  stones  away 
from  the  surface  and  drive  out  bubbles  of  air  which  tend  to  adhere  to  the 
boards  and  form  pockets  of  stone. 

A  column  10  inches  square,  the  smallest  size  it  is  usually  desirable  to  build 
unless  it  is  quite  short,  will  safely  support  15  tons,  or  30,000  pounds. 

67 


INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  MANURE  PIT  AT  GEDNEY  FARMS,  WHITE  PLAINS,  N.  Y. 


DETAILS  OF  PIERS  AND  FLOOR  BEAMS  UNDER  HORSE  BARN  AT  GEDNEY  FARMS,  WHITE  PLAINS,  N.  Y. 

68 


STEPS  AND   STAIRS. 

Steps  and  stairs  are  of  two  kinds :  those  made  in  one  piece,  monolithic,  and 
those  cast  in  separate  moulds  and  put  into  place.  There  are  numerous  ways 
of  arriving  at  the  same  end,  and  each  man  in  charge  of  such  work  must  use 
his  ingenuity  in  the  use  of  the  materials  at  hand,  and  adopt  the  method  best 
suited  to  his  requirements.  Specifications  are  given  for  four  ways  of  making 
steps  and  stairs,  all  of  which  have  proved  successful. 


FLYING  STAIRS,  DAIRY  HOUSE  AT  GEDNEY  FARMS,  WHITE  PLAINS,  N.  Y. 

The  rises  on  all  steps  and  stairs  should  not  be  less  than  6  inches  nor 
more  than  8  inches,  while  the  tread  should  be  from  9  inches  to  12  inches, 
except  where  it  is  intended  that  more  than  one  step  should  be  taken  on  the 
tread,  in  which  case  30  inches  should  be  the  minimum  width. 

Foundations  for  all  steps  out  of  doors  should  extend  below  frost  line  or 
have  a  porous  base  with  a  drain  situated  at  the  lowest  point  to  allow  the  water 
to  run  off.  Steps  should  be  wider  than  the  walk  or  opening  from  which  they 

69 


SIDEWALK  AND  STEPS  AT  WEST  HAVEN,  CONN. 

lead,  to  avoid  looking  cramped,  and,  in  order  to  secure  an  artistic  effect,  should 
have  some  sort  of  projection,  or  moulding,  at  the  upper  edge.  A  slight  slope 
to  allow  the  water  to  run  off  is  also  desirable. 

Let  us  first  consider  steps  to  areas  or  terraced  grounds.    Excavate  the  earth 
on  the  slope  to  the  desired  depth  (see  Foundations  for  Sidewalks)  and  put  in 


Aforfcrr  F/nish 


._ 


Fig.  21.     Concrete  Steps. 
70 


porous  foundation  with  a  drain  at  the  lower  end  to  dispose  of  any  water  that 
may  accumulate. 

Take  two  planks  the  length  of  the  flight  of  steps  on  the  slope,  and  wide 
enough  to  house  each  step,  and  mark  upon  them  the  location  of  the  riser  for 
each  step.  Place  these  planks  edgewise  on  each  side  on  the  slope,  and  brace 


CELLAR  STEPS  AND  ICE  BOX  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 

well  on  the  outside.  Place  the  necessary  reinforcement,  as  given  in  the  table, 
the  full  length  of  the  steps  on  the  slope.  Now  set  planks  marked  (b.)  Fig.  21, 
across  these  housings  to  form  the  rise  of  each  step  on  the  lines  previously 
marked,  placing  them  so  that  there  will  be  a  space  below  them  for  a  continuous 
slab  of  concrete.  The  thickness  of  the  slab  is  given  in  the  table  under  column 
marked  "A."  These  planks  should  be  arranged  with  a  groove  at  the  top,  as 
shown,  to  form  the  projection  or  moulding  at  the  top  of  each  step.  They 


should  be  fastened  to  the  housing  planks  with  cleats  in  such  a  way  that  they 
can  be  removed  without  disturbing  them.  Inside  of  each  of  these  riser  forms 
place  a  loose  piece  of  board,  well  greased,  as  described  for  facing  curbing  on 
page  79,  so  as  to  provide  a  space  which  can  later  be  filled  with  mortar.  Now 
pour  into  the  forms  thus  made  concrete  in  proportions  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement,  two  parts  clean,  coarse  sand,  and  four  parts  broken  stone  or 
screened  gravel,  filling  each  step  to  within  i  inch  of  the  top  of  the  riser.  As 
soon  as  this  concrete  has  stiffened,  but  before  it  has  set,  carefully  draw  out 


PORCH  STEPS  AT  GREENPORT,  L.  I.,  N.  Y. 

the  loose  facing  board  and  fill  the  spaces  with  mortar  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement  to  one  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand,  and  also  cover 
over  the  top  of  the  step  to  the  depth  of  i  inch  with  the  same  mortar,  so  that 
it  will  come  flush  with  the  top  of  the  riser  plank.  Float  the  surface  lightly 
with  a  wooden  float,  and  as  soon  as  it  has  stiffened  hard  enough  to  work, 
trowel  it  thoroughly.  Early  next  day  remove  the  riser  form,  the  bottom  of 
which,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  is  beveled  and  comes  only  to  the  top  of  the 
mortar  surface,  and  trowel  the  face  of  each  riser.  A  skilled  plasterer  should 
be  employed  for  this  work,  as  the  surface  is  likely  to  crack  if  not  handled  in  a 
workmanlike  manner. 

Porch  steps,  and  other  short  flights,  can  be  built  as  follows:     Build  two 
8-inch  walls  to  a  depth  below  frost,  the  upper  surface  conforming  to  the  desired 

72 


pitch  of  the  steps,  but  3  inches  below  the  points  where  the  inner  edges  of  the 
treads  meet  the  risers.    Carry  the  outside  form,  however,  on  the  same  slope  to 


Fig.  22. 


Waffs  -fobebu/ff-befow  frost 


Fig.  23. 
Fig.  22.     Form  for  a  Single  Step. 

Fig.  23.     Single  Steps  in  Place. 

the  line  of  the  top  of  the  risers.  Between  the  walls  build  a  sloping  platform 
out  of  i-inch  boards  supported  by  2  x  4-inch  stuff,  well  braced  and  conforming 
to  the  slope  of  the  walls.  Upon  this  sloping  platform  place  ^-inch  steel  bars 
12  inches  apart  running  from  top  to  bottom.  Also,  crossways  place  one 
2i-inch  bar  just  at  the  foot  of  each  rise,  and  fasten  these  to  the  y^-inch  bars  by 
soft  wire.  Next  mark  for  the  location  of  the  risers  the  side  forms  which  project 
above  the  8-inch  walls,  place  cross  plank  on  each  to  form  these  risers,  and 
proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  has  been  described  for  area  steps.  Forms 
should  not  be  removed  from  under  the  steps  for  28  days.  Should  the  steps  be 
more  than  6  feet  wide,  a  wall  similar  to  the  two  side  walls  may  be  built  in  the 
center. 

Sometimes  it  is  easier  to  build  a  wall  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  steps 
instead  of  at  the  sides,  and  run  the  principal  rods  lengthwise  of  the  flight,  so 
that  it  is  supported  at  top  and  bottom.  In  this  case  the  supporting  slab,  whose 
thickness  must  be  considered  as  the  thinnest  place  in  the  steps,  is  designated 
in  Fig.  21  by  "A."  The  span,  that  is,  the  "distance  apart  of  the  beams,"  in  the 
table  is  taken  as  the  length  of  the  horizontal  projection  of  the  stairs.  The 
thickness  of  the  slab  and  the  diameter  and  spacing  of  the  rods  are  given  in  the 
table  following. 

73 


DIMENSIONS  OF  STAIRS 
(S=e  Fig.  21,  Page  70.) 


Distance 
Between 
Floors 
Feet 

Rise 
Inches 

Tread 
Inches 

A 
Inches 

Size 
of  Rods* 
Inches 

Spacing* 
Inches 

No.  of 
Rods 
in  Top 
Beam 

Size  of 
Rods 
in  Top 
Beam 
Inches 

No.  of 
Steps 

10 

iy> 

10 

7« 

or  y% 

4 

1 

y% 

16 

9 

*t\i 

10 

6y, 

M 

or  y% 

4^4 

1 

5/8 

15 

8 

7* 

10 

6 

or  ^8 

s| 

1 

N 

13 

7 

7 

10 

5H 

or  ^s 

9 

1 

y* 

12 

6 

7M 

10 

4K 

N 

or  1^ 

4 

7 

1 

y* 

10 

5 

7Ji 

10 

334 

or  i| 

PM 

1 

y* 

8 

4 

7 

10 

3M 

or^| 

6 
11 

1 

v, 

7 

3 

7M 

10 

2y2 

^ 

9 

1 

y* 

5 

*  Select  either  size  and  spacing  preferred. 

Steps  cast  separate  from  supporting  walls  should  be  made  in  advance  and 
allowed  to  season.  The  sectional  drawing  illustrates  this  form  of  step.  To 
build  a  single  step,  make  form  shown  in  Fig.  22,  14  inches  x  7  inches  inside 
measurement  and  i  inch  for  projection,  and  fill  as  shown  to  within  i  inch  of 
top  with  concrete,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  three  parts  clean, 
coarse  sand  and  six  parts  broken  stone,  tamped  hard.  As  soon  as  this  has 
stiffened,  but  before  it  has  set,  remove  the  board  "a"  next  to  the  face  of  the 
concrete,  which  should  not  be  fastened  to  the  form,  but  simply  set  in  and  well 
greased.  This  will  leave  a  space  on  the  side  and  top  of  step,  also  a  small  mould 
for  the  projection  at  top  of  step.  Fill  this  with  wet  mortar,  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement  and  one  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand,  and  let  set. 
The  side  forms  may  then  be  removed  and  used  again.  The  two  side  walls  for 
these  steps  may  be  8  inches  wide,  spread  at  the  base  by  allowing  the  concrete 
to  flow  out  under  the  forms.  The  top  is  stepped  off  to  conform  to  the  bottom 
and  back  of  steps  (Fig.  23.)  Place  the  steps  on  the  walls  thus  made,  after 
covering  all  joints  with  cement  mortar,  so  that  they  overlap  one  another  2 
inches.  Reinforce  all  steps  and  stairs  cast  separately  by  iron  bars  placed 
about  i  inch  above  the  bottom  of  the  slab. 


74 


SIDEWALKS. 

Before  laying  the  concrete  a  foundation  of  porous  material,  such  as  cinders 
or  screened  gravel,  must  be  placed  and  as  much  care  should  be  taken  in  laying 
this  as  the  walk  itself.  Foundations  should  generally  be  6  inches  to  12  inches 
deep,  depending  upon  the  climate  and  character  of  the  soil.  In  sections  where 
there  is  a  porous  soil  and  a  mild  climate,  foundations  are  sometimes  omitted 
entirely.  If  the  soil  is  clayey,  blind  drains  of  coarse  gravel  or  tile  pipe  should 
be  laid  at  the  lowest  points  in  the  excavation,  to  carry  off  any  water  that  might 
accumulate  in  the  porous  material  of  the  foundation.  Walks  are  frequently 
ruined  by  water  freezing  in  the  foundations  and  heaving  them  out  of  position. 

Excavate  to  the  sub-grade  previously  determined  upon,  3  inches  wider  on 
each  side  than  the  proposed  walk,  and  fill  with  broken  stone,  gravel  or  cinders 
to  within  4  inches  of  the  proposed  finished  surface,  wetting  well  and  tamping 
in  layers,  so  that  when  complete  it  will  be  even  and  firm,  but  porous.  Place 
2-inch  x  4-inch  scantlings  (preferably  dressed  on  inside  and  edge  and  perfectly 
straight)  on  top  of  the  cinder  foundation,  the  proper  distance  apart  to  form 
the  inner  and  outer  edges  of  the  walk.  The  outside  or  curb  strips  must  be  i 
inch  to  2  inches  lower  than  the  inner  edge  of  the  walk.  This  will  give  a  slight 
incline  to  the  finished  surface  and  allow  the  water  to  run  off.  A  good  rule  to 
follow  is  to  allow  %-inch  slope  to  every  foot  of  width  of  walk.  For  wide  walks 
lay  off  the  space  between  the  scantlings  into  equal  sections  not  larger  than 
6  feet  square,  put  2-inch  x  4-inch  scantlings  crosswise  and  in  the  center,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  24 — this  will  make  every  alternate  space,  shown  in  figure  by 
diagonal  line,  the  size  desired.  Fill  these  spaces  with  concrete  to  a  depth  of  3 
inches  (this  depth  should  be  4  inches  where  there  is  more  than  ordinary  traffic, 
or  where  the  blocks  are  6  feet  square) — one  part  " ATLAS"  Portland  Cement, 
two  parts  clean,  coarse  sand,  and  four  to  five  parts  broken  stone  or  screened 
gravel — then  tamp  until  water  begins  to  show  on  top.  On  the  same  day,  as 
soon  as  the  concrete  has  set,  remove  crosswise  and  center  scantlings,  place  a 
sheet  of  tar  paper  on  the  edges  to  separate  them  from  all  other  squares  and  fill 
in  the  spaces  thus  left  with  3-inch  concrete  as  before.  Mark  the  scantling  to 
show  where  the  joints  come. 

The  finishing  coat  should  be  i  inch  thick,  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement  and  one  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand,  or  crushed  stone  screen- 
ings. This  coat  should  be  spread  on  before  the  concrete  has  taken  its  set,  and 
smoothed  off  with  a  screed  or  straight  edge  run  over  the  2x4  scantlings,  the 
object  being  to  thoroughly  bond  the  finishing  coat  to  the  concrete  base.  If  the 
bond  between  the  finishing  coat  and  the  concrete  is  imperfect,  the  walk  gives 
a  hollow  sound  under  the  feet,  and  is  liable  to  crack  after  having  been  down 

75 


>. 


I 


76 


one  or  two  years.  Smooth  with  a  wooden  float,  and  groove  exactly  over  the 
joints  between  the  concrete  (Fig.  24),  so  as  to  bevel  the  edges  of  all  blocks. 
Do  not  trowel  the  finishing  coat  too  much,  nor  until  it  has  begun  to  stiffen,  as 
this  tends  to  separate  the  cement  from  the  sand,  producing  hair  cracks,  and 
giving  a  poor  wearing  surface.  Keep  the  finished  walks  protected  from  dust, 
dirt,  currents  of  air  and  the  hot  sun  during  the  process  of  setting,  and  further 

MATERIALS  FOR  100  SQ.  FT.  OF  CONCRETE. 


BAGS  OF  CEMENT  TO  100  SQ.  FT.  OF  CONCRETE 
SURFACE 

BAGS  OF  CEMENT  TO  100  SQ.  FT.  OF  MORTAR 
SURFACE 

Thickness 
Inches 

Proportions 

Thickness 
Inches 

Proportions 

1:1^:3 

1:2:4 

1:3:6 

1:1 

1:1^2 

1:2 

3 
4 
5 
6 
8 
10 
12 

NCI  XMS-JX-HX^X^). 

i-H\  iH\CO\CO\CO\CO\ 

OC  --H  -<t  vo  (N  00  "^ 

•rH  TH  ^H  CN  CN  PO 

6^ 
8% 
11 

13  M 

18 
21)4 
26^ 

4% 
6 
7^ 

9^ 

12 

15K 

18^ 

•Hz 

•M 
i 

1M 
1H 

ik 

2 

3^ 

7 

8M 
10 
12 
14 

2% 
4 

57M 

8 

9M 

11 

2^ 

3>2 

4M 
5% 
6% 
7% 
9 

SURFACES   LAID   WITH   ONE  BARREL  OF   CEMENT. 


No.  OF  SQ.  FT.  OF  CONCRETE   (BASE)   LAID 
WITH  4  BAGS  (1  BBL.)  OF  CEMENT 


Thickness 
Inches 

Proportions 

Thickness 
Inches 

Proportions 

1:1^:3 

1:2:4 

1:3:6 

1:1 

1:1H 

1:2 

3 
4 
5 
6 
8 
10 
12 

47 
36 
27 
24 
17 
14 
12 

60 
46 
36 
30 
22 
19 
15 

83 
66 
52 
41 
33 
26 
21 

l/2 
% 
1 

1M 
IK 
1M 

114 
80 
57 
48 
40 
33 
29 

146 
100 

73 
60 
50 
43 
36 

178 
114 
89 
70 
59 
52 
44 

No.  OF  SQ.  FT.  OF  MORTAR  SURFACE  LAID 
WITH  4  BAGS  (1  BBL.)  OF  CEMENT 


NOTE. — Four  bags  of  cement  equal  1  barrel. 

For  proportions  1 :1  %  -3  use  for  every  33  bags  of  cement  1  large  double  load  of  sand  and  2  of  gravel. 
For  proportions  1 :2 :4  use  for  every  23  bags  of  cement  1  large  double  load  of  sand  and  2  of  gravel. 
For  proportions  1 :3 :6  use  for  every  1 5  bags  of  cement  1  large  double  load  of  sand  and  2  of  gravel. 
One  large  double  load  contains  40  cubic  feet  or  1 %  cubic  yards. 


protect  from  the  sun  and  traffic  for  three  or  four  days,  and  keep  moist  by 
sprinkling.  The  covering  may  be  whatever  is  most  convenient — sand,  straw, 
sawdust,  grass,  or  boards. 

Most  walks  are  made  the  width  of  a  single  block,  and  should  be  constructed 
as  shown  in  Fig.  24.  In  a  walk  the  width  of  a  single  block,  make  every 
alternate  block  and  then  go  back  and  fill  in  the  blocks  between. 

77 


CONCRETE  BLOCK  BARN  AT  HARPERSVILLE,  N.  Y. 


COW  BARN  AT  U.  S.  SOLDIERS'  HOME,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 
78 


CURB  AND  GUTTER. 

The  foundation  for  curbs  and  gutters,  like  sidewalks,  should  be  governed 
by  the  soil  and  climate. 

Concrete  curbing  should  be  built  in  advance  of  the  walk  in  sectional  pieces 
6  feet  to  8  feet  long,  and  separated  from  each  other  and  from  the  walk  by  tar 
paper  or  a  cut  joint,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  walk  is  divided  into  blocks. 

Curbs  should  be  4  inches  to  7  inches  wide  at  the  top  and  5  inches  to  8 
inches  at  the  bottom,  with  a  face  6  inches  to  7  inches  above  the  gutter.  The 
curb  should  stand  on  a  concrete  base  5  inches  to  8  inches  thick,  which  in 
turn  should  have  a  sub-base  of  porous  material  at  least  12  inches  thick.  The 


v 


;t>.-«-gy.'af f 


'fihfsfungGxrf 


Gjncrefe 

IT/' 


o *•"'*»'       *•      *"^>  <^.''u 

&M^ 

W^*::.:ivv 

*•-•:  .ct/»c*;- 


Concrete 


form 

Fig.  25.     Concrete  Curb  and  Gutters. 

gutter  should  be  16  inches  to  20  inches  broad,  and  6  inches  to  9  inches  thick, 
and  should  also  have  a  porous  foundation  at  least  12  inches  thick. 

Keeping  the  above  dimensions  in  mind,  excavate  a  trench  the  combined 
width  of  the  gutter  and  curb  and  put  in  the  sub-base  of  porous  material.  On 
top  of  this  place  forms  and  fill  with  a  layer  of  concrete,  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement,  three  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  six  parts  broken  stone, 
thick  enough  to  fill  the  forms  to  about  3  inches  below  the  street  level.  As 
soon  as  the  concrete  is  sufficiently  set  to  withstand  pressure,  place  forms  for 
the  curb,  and,  after  carefully  cleaning  the  concrete  between  the  forms  and 

79 


thoroughly  wetting,  fill  with  concrete,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement, 
two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  five  parts  broken  stone.  When 
the  curb  has  sufficiently  set  to  withstand  its  own  weight  without  bulging, 
remove  the  s^-inch  board  shown  in  Fig.  25,  and  with  the  aid  of  a  trowel  fill 
in  the  space  between  the  concrete  and  the  form  with  cement  mortar,  one  part 
"ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  and  one  part  clean,  coarse  sand.  The  finishing 
coat  at  the  top  of  the  curb  should  be  put  on  at  the  same  time.  Trowel  thor- 
oughly and  smooth  with  a  wooden  float,  removing  face  form  the  following  day. 
Sprinkle  often  and  protect  from  sun. 

In  making  curbs  alone,  specifications  given  below  and  illustrated  in  sec- 
tional drawing  should  be  followed. 

Excavate  32  inches  below  the  level  of  the  curb  and  fill  with  cinders,  broken 
stone,  gravel  or  broken  brick  to  depth  of  12  inches.  Build  a  foundation  8 
inches  deep  by  12  inches  broad,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  three 
parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  six  parts  broken  stone,  and  from  the  top  of  this 
and  nearly  flush  with  the  rear,  build  a  concrete  wall  n*4  inches  high,  7% 
inches  broad  at  the  base  and  6%  inches  at  the  top,  the  i-inch  slope  to  be  on  the 
face.  Forms  should  be  built  as  in  Fig.  25. 

Remove  the  forms  as  soon  as  the  concrete  will  withstand  its  own  weight 
without  bulging,  and  proceed  as  per  directions  given  on  this  page  (Fig.  25). 
Keep  moist  for  several  days  and  protect  from  the  sun.  The  above  measure- 
ments may  be  varied  to  suit  local  conditions. 


RUBBLE  CONCRETE  BARN  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 
80 


BARNS. 

Each  year  dairymen  are  realizing  more  and  more  the  necessity  of  improv- 
ing and  changing  their  methods  in  order  to  produce  a  milk  which  contains 
less  bacteria  than  that  of  their  neighbor  or  competitor.  A  number  of  factors 
enter  into  the  accomplishment  of  this  result. 

It  is  stated  by  experienced  dairymen  that  the  material  of  which  the  barn  is 
made  is  of  the  most  vital  importance,  for  this  may  be  the  breeding  place  of 
germs.  With  the  use  of  concrete  this  question  is  solved,  because  a  building  so 
constructed  offers  no  chance  for  the  germs  to  nest.  If  one  goes  a  step  further 
and  constructs  the  floors,  troughs,  stalls  and  other  fixtures  all  of  concrete, 
perfect  hygienic  conditions  are  realized,  and  the  road  is  clear  to  securing  a 
germ-proof  milk. 


1 5 in.  on  centers 


in.  Flod<s 


Fig.  26.     Section  of  Cow  Barn  Floor. 


FEED   TROUGHS. 

Many  designs  of  feeding  troughs  have  been  used,  but  most  of  them  are 
objectionable  from  a  hygienic  standpoint.  A  concrete  feeding  trough,  shown 
in  section  in  Fig.  26,  is  similar  to  the  trough  developed  after  considerable 
study  by  the  well-known  dairy  expert,  Mr.  S.  L.  Stewart,  and  used  by  him  at 
Somefs  Center,  N.  Y.,  and  elsewhere. 

This  design  has  a  high  front  end,  slanting  instead  of  straight,  in  order  to 
avoid  scratching  and  bumping  it  with  the  carts  and  to  keep  them  out  of  the 
drain  in  front.  Use  the  same  design  of  forms  for  the  slanting  front  as  that 
shown  in  the  figure,  except  place  the  bottom  of  the  form  8  inches  in  from 
the  vertical.  Make  the  inside  of  the  trough  at  the  center  either  on  a  level 
with  the  top  of  the  finished  floor  or  about  2  inches  above  it,  and  give  it  a  slope 
of  3  inches  in  50  feet  in  order  to  readily  drain  the  water  at  the  lower  end. 

81 


INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  BARN  AT  GLEN  COVE,  L.  I. 


FEED-MIXING  TROUGH  AT  U.  S.  SOLDIERS'  HOME,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

82 


Some  of  the  features  which  this  trough  incorporates  are : 

(1)  The  front  of  the  trough  is  low  so  that  it  does  not  catch  tne  breath  of 
the  cow,  and  still  is  high  enough  to  prevent  the  material  from  being  spilled  out 
unnecessarily. 

(2)  Only  a  minimum  amount  of  water  need  be  run  into  the  trough,  and 
still  it  will  be  deep  enough  to  allow  the  cattle  to  drink  freely. 

(3)  The  trough  is  of  such  a  width  that  the  least  amount  of  material  is  apt 
to  be  thrown  out  of  the  trough  by  the  cattle. 


INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  BARN  AT  BROOKSIDE  FARM,  NEWBURGH.N.  Y. 

The  following  costs  of  concrete  troughs  are  figured  from  actual  data  taken 
by  a  contractor  on  a  job  in  New  York.  These  values  checked  almost  exactly 
with  those  given  by  another  contractor  in  a  different  section  of  the  country. 
The  comparison  was  made  possible,  of  course,  by  assuming  the  unit  cost  of 
material  and  labor  the  same  for  both  jobs,  thus  placing  them  on  the  same  basis. 
A  trough  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  26  contains  about  3^/2  cubic  feet  of  con- 
crete per  running  foot  of  trough.  It  should  be  made  with  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement  to  two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand,  to  five  parts  of 
stone,  and  finished  with  a  one-inch  coat  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement  to  one  and  one-half  parts  of  sand.  The  amount  of  material  needed 

83 


CONCRETE  HORSE  BARN  AT  GEDNEY  FARMS,  WHITE  PLAINS,  N.  Y. 


COW  BARN  AT  BABYLON,  L.  I. 
84 


per  10  linear  or  running  feet  of  trough,  including  the  top  finish,  is  ten  bags  of 
cement,  one  single  load  of  sand  (20  cubic  feet  per  load),  and  one  and  three 
quarters  of  a  single  load  of  gravel.  Thus  the  cost  per  running  foot  of  trough 
for  material  only  is  about  70  cents,  considering  cement  at  $2.00  per  barrel, 
sand  at  75  cents  per  cubic  yard,  and  gravel  at  $1.25  per  cubic  yard.  The  cost 
of  labor  is  about  44  cents  per  running  foot,  considering  labor  at  $2.00  per  day. 
This  makes  the  total  cost  for  labor  and  material  per  linear  foot  of  trough 
about  $1.14.  When  the  price  of  labor  or  material  is  higher,  the  cost  will 
naturaly  be  greater,  and  vice  versa.  The  cost  of  the  stanchions  and  pipe  work 
is  about  $8.00  per  stall,  but  this  price  varies  with  the  local  market  and  the 
kind  of  stanchion  bought. 


Temp/ate   of  /m  boards 


Fig.  27.     Forms  for  Concrete  Trough. 


The  forms  for  a  trough  are  very  simple.  Two  forms  and  a  screed  or  templet 
are  all  that  is  required  (see  Fig.  27).  Oil  the  foms  thoroughly,  then  set  up 
the  front  and  back  forms  as  shown  and  brace  them  well.  Plaster  the  forms 
with  a  i -inch  coat  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  one  and  one-half 
parts  of  sand,  and  before  this  has  begun  to  stiffen  place  the  concrete.  It  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  mortar  finish  does  not  set  before  placing  the 
concrete,  for  otherwise  there  will  be  no  bond  between  the  body  of  the  concrete 
and  the  mortar  face,  which  will  be  sure  to  crack  off,  especially  if  kicked  or 
jarred.  The  screed  or  templet  is  cut  from  boards  nailed  together,  as  shown  in 
the  figure,  and  is  used  to  screed  off  the  concrete  and  make  it  the  desired  shape. 
The  reinforcement  and  the  pipes  for  the  stanchions  are  placed  as  shown. 

85 


FLOORS. 

CELLAR  FLOORS.  Cellar  floors  may  be  laid  without  foundations,  except 
in  places  where  there  is  danger  of  frost  getting  into  the  ground  below  the  floor. 
The  dirt  should  be  evened  off  and  tamped  hard,  and  the  concrete,  one  part 
"ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and 
five  parts  broken  stone,  spread  over  the  surface  in  one  continuous  slab  3  inches 
to  4  inches  thick  and  lightly  tamped  to  bring  the  water  to  the  surface,  and 
screeded  with  a  straight  edge  resting  upon  scantlings  placed  about  12  feet 
apart.  The  scantlings  are  then  withdrawn  and  their  places  filled  with  con- 
crete. No  finishing  coat  is  needed  unless  the  floor  is  to  have  excessive  wear. 
The  surface  of  the  concrete,  however,  should  be  troweled  as  soon  as  it  has 
begun  to  stiffen.  Joints  about  12  feet  apart  should  be  made  if  the  surface  is 
more  than  500  feet  long,  or  if  it  is  to  be  subjected  to  extreme  temperatures. 
(See  "Side  Walks,"  p.  75.) 


CONCRETE  FLOOR  IN  COW  STABLE  AT  ST.  CHARLES,  ILL. 


BARN  FLOORS.  Barn  floors  are  laid  in  the  same  manner  as  sidewalks.  The 
thickness  of  the  porous  sub-base  varies  with  conditions,  but  generally  6  to  12 
inches  is  sufficient.  The  floor  itself  should  be  about  4  inches  thick,  of  concrete 
in  proportions  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  and  one-half  parts, 

86 


INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  CARRIAGE  HOUSE  AT  WASCO,  ILL. 


FLOOR  OF  HORSE  BARN  AT  HOMER,  ILL. 

(This  floor  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  durability  of  concrete  floors.  It  is  40  x  60  feet,  and  although  it  has  been 
in  service  over  five  years,  no  cracks  of  any  kind  are  visible.  This  floor  was  made  of  one  part  "  ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement,  two  parts  sand  and  four  parts  stone,  and  surfaced  with  a  mortar  of  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  and  sand.) 

87 


clean,  coarse  sand,  and  five  parts  screened  gravel  or  broken  stone,  and  be 
finished  before  the  concrete  has  set  with  a  i-inch  mortar  surface  of  one  part 
"ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  one  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand. 

The  surface  of  the  floor  should  have  sufficient  slope  to  carry  liquids  to  the 
drains,  and  in  order  to  prevent  the  animals  from  slipping  the  floor  may  be 
scored  or  grooved  into  blocks  before  the  concrete  has  hardened.  These  sec- 
tions may  be  about  6  inches  square. 

Some  builders  make  a  practice  of  waterproofing  the  stable  floor.  This 
is  not  necessary  in  most  cases,  but  where  there  is  any  great  danger  of  the 
ground  water  causing  the  barn  to  become  damp,  the  floor  should  be  laid  as 
follows : 

Place  a  2-inch  layer  of  concrete,  mop  on  a  3-ply  layer  of  tar  and  felt  water- 
proofing, and  then  upon  this  the  rest  of  the  concrete. 


CONCRETE  FEEDING  FLOOR  AND  WATERING  TROUGH  AT  EAST  NORWICH,  L.  I. 


FEEDING  FLOORS.  The  immense  advantage  of  concrete  feeding  floors 
over  the  old  method  of  placing  fodder  on  the  ground  is  apparent  to  all  who 
have  given  the  subject  any  thought. 


Feeding  floors  should  be  built  the  same  as  sidewalks  (see  Walks).  The 
finishing  coat  is  optional,  although  it  has  the  advantage  of  being  much  easier 
to  keep  clean.  Many  farmers  prefer  an  unfinished  surface  on  account  of  its 
giving  cattle  a  firmer  footing  in  slippery  weather. 


/07ft. 


Hay  Barn 

feed  Ffoom 


Mi/king  Barn 
52.  Cows 


Cess  F?ool 


Dairy  Building 


V. 

\*\Milktng  Barn 


•         _     i_^-_JIL      J_  ,         J_      X.V>Y— -     TT~~~TTll-iriW'!^"""T""'-'TT""--'T  . 

Mixing  Ffoom  \  /*"•»  7 -. ^!-j, ^^'\ 

^  1 1 1  i  1 1  i  i  i  i  I  i  i  J;;^LLI  i  i  i  I  i     .m  J 


Total  length  254  rJ. 


Trolley 
VS//0 


Fig.  28.     Plan  of  the  Farm  Building  at  the  New  York  Catholic  Protectory, 

Somers  Center,  N.  Y. 


RUNWAYS  FROM  STABLES. 

To  construct  a  runway  from  a  stable  make  up  two  or  three  batches  of 
concrete  in  proportions  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  two  parts 
sand  to  four  parts  gravel  or  broken  stone,  spread  it  in  place,  and  roughly 
trowel  the  surface.  If  a  fine,  smooth  surface  is  desired,  it  may  be  built  like  a 
sidewalk  (see  p.  75)  with  a  4-inch  base  of  concrete  and  one  inch  wearing 
surface  of  mortar  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  two  parts  sand. 
If  the  runway  is  built  on  a  slope  which  consists  of  filled  ground,  care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  fill  is  well  tamped  and  not  liable  to  settle.  If 
there  is  any  danger  of  the  filling  settling  from  under  the  runway,  it  must  be 
designed  as  a  flat  slab.  In  this  case  the  thickness  of  slab  and  amount  of 
reinforcement  necessary  for  the  width  and  span  of  the  runway  can  be  taken 
directly  from  the  table  on  page  30,  using  the  heaviest  loading.  For  example, 
if  the  length  to  be  supported  is  8  feet,  place  ^2-inch  rods  in  bottom  of  slab, 
7*/2  inches  apart. 

89 


DRAINS. 

Since  well-made  concrete,  after  it  has  hardened,  is  not  injured  by  manure, 
concrete  is  being  used  to  replace  wooden  or  masonry  drains  which  are 
continually  rotting  or  leaking. 

Drains  may  be  made  either  in  place,  or  tile,  described  below,  may  be  used. 
In  any  case  lay  the  drain  with  enough  slope  to  flush  properly,  and  if  it  is  to 
receive  material  liable  to  clog,  make  it  open  or  with  a  removable  cover. 


INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  BARN  AT  EAST  NORWICH,  L.  I. 

To  make  a  drain  in  place,  dig  a  trench  on  the  proper  slope.  Set  sections 
of  form  the  shape  of  the  inside  of  the  drain  so  that  the  concrete  will  be  3  or  4 
inches  thick.  Pour  the  concrete,  mixed  in  proportions  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement  to  three  parts  coarse  gravelly  sand,  into  the  trench  under 
the  form.  Remove  the  form  when  the  concrete  has  hardened  for  about  one 
or  two  hours,  and  gently  trowel  the  surface  to  make  it  smooth  and  bring  the 
cement  to  the  surface. 

If  the  drain  is  to  have  lids,  the  concrete  of  the  sides  is  left  down  so  as  to 
leave  room  for  the  lid  and  have  the  top  sunk  about  T/\  inch  below  the  level  of 
the  floor. 

90 


TILE    DRAINS 

Concrete  land  tile  drains,  when  made  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement  to  three  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  which  has  been  sifted  through  a 
5/2-inch  mesh  screen  and  of  a  soft,  mushy  consistency  like  mortar  used  for 
laying  brick,  can  be  depended  upon  to  resist  the  chemical  action  of  even  the 
most  alkaline  ground  water.  The  tile  may  be  made  12  or  18  inches  long,  and 
the  inside  diameter  anywhere  from  4  to  12  inches. 

The  forms  for  making  concrete  land  tile  are  simple  and  inexpensive.  One 
or  two  sets  of  forms  with  four  or  six  tile  each  may  be  made  so  that  they  can 


MOLDING  TILE  DRAINS 

be  filled  every  morning,  and  in  this  way  enough  tiles  can  be  soon  on  hand  to 
drain  a  large  acreage  of  land.  The  concrete  tile  should  be  made  with  a 
circular  bore,  and  may  be  either  circular  or  square  on  the  outside.  A  photo- 
graph of  a  tier  of  four  forms,  with  two  of  the  tile  on  a  board,  is  shown  above. 
Use  ordinary  stove  pipe  of  the  required  diameter  for  the  inside  mold;  this 
should  project  far  enough  above  the  top  of  the  wood  form  so  that  a  good  grip 
can  be  had  on  it  in  order  to  remove  it  from  the  concrete.  If  desired, 
holes  can  be  punched  through  the  stove  pipe  near  the  top  and  a  rod  placed 
through  these  holes  in  order  to  more  easily  draw  the  pipes.  To  keep  the 

91 


pipes  in  place  when  pouring  the  concrete  for  each  tile,  drive  four  nails  in  the 
floor  or  platform  on  which  the  tile  are  to  be  cast,  leaving  them  projecting  so  as 
to  locate  the  end  of  the  pipe  and  keep  it  from  getting  out  of  position  but  yet 
not  hindering  its  removal.  The  stove  pipes  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
greased  each  time  they  are  used,  and  must  not  be  dented  or  have  any  irregu- 
larities on  them  to  make  them  catch. 

As  shown  in  the  photograph,  the  wood  partitions  are  permanently  attached 
to  one  of  the  long  sides,  but  the  other  side  is  only  nailed  on  temporarily  and 
the  heads  of  the  nails  left  so  that  they  can  be  readily  withdrawn  with  a  claw 


MANURE  PIT  AT  GEDNEY  FARMS,  WHITE  PLAINS,  N.  Y. 

hammer  and  without  jarring  the  forms  unnecessarily.  The  wood  partitions 
are  spaced  far  enough  apart  so  that  there  is  one  inch  of  concrete  between 
stove  pipe  and  the  wood,  hence  make  the  distance  between  the  sides  equal  to 
the  diameter  of  the  stove  pipe,  plus  2  inches.  In  order  to  readily  remove  the 
wood  forms,  clean  and  oil  them  thoroughly  before  each  time  using.  Mix  the 
concrete  to  proportions  and  consistency  given  above  and  place  in  the  mold, 
ramming  with  a  stick.  The  time  to  remove  the  stove  pipe  core  varies  with 
the  wetness  of  the  mix  and  the  temperature,  but  it  should  be  pulled  as  soon 
as  the  top  of  the  concrete  begins  to  harden,  which  generally  is  from  one-half 
to  one  hour ;  if  left  too  long  it  is  very  hard  to  get  them  out.  The  outside  forms 

92 


can  usually  be  removed  after  two  or  three  hours,  or  may  be  left  until  the  next 
morning.  To  remove  the  wood  forms,  pull  the  protruding  nails  with  a  claw 
hammer,  and  carefully  remove  this  side.  Place  this  sideboard  back  again  in 
position,  and  carefully  turn  the  whole  tier  on  the  side.  Next  draw  out  the 
other  side  with  the  partitions  attached.  If  any  of  the  forms  stick,  they  can 
generally  be  started  by  tapping  them  lightly  with  a  hammer;  this  applies  as 
well  to  the  stove  pipe  cores.  Scrape  the  form  carefully,  re-oil,  attach  the  long 
side  and  they  are  ready  for  a  second  filling. 

To  save  material  the  outside  of  the  tile  may  be  made  round  or  octagonal. 
For  the  latter  tack  triangular  strips  in  all  corners  of  the  mold. 


iin.  sfee/  bars 
2.4/n.  on  centers 


^6  in. 


4/ri. 


/£//?  sfee/  bars 
vSec/xo/7  of  drain 


f-3in.  chestriut  plank 


or  <s/rcryy 


4- in.  /and  ///e 
co//ar$ 
for  outflow 

<Seof/on    on  J/ne  A  A 

Fig.  29.     Concrete  Cess  Pool  and  Drains  at  New  York  Catholic  Protectory, 

Somers  Center,  N.  Y. 

93 


CESS    POOLS. 

A  cess  pool  for  either  a  house  or  a  barn  may  be  made  in  the  manner 
described  for  cisterns  on  page  119.  A  single  chamber  may  be  made  with 
over-flow  drains  laid  with  loose  joints  and  leading  under  the  surface  of  the 
ground  so  as  to  fertilize  the  lawn  or  garden. 

The  cess  pool  shown  in  Fig.  29  is  built  in  several  sections  so  that  the  manure 
may  settle  and  overflow  into  the  series  of  tanks.  The  sewage  from  the  drains 
empties  into  the  first  tank  where  the  heavy  material  settles,  leaving  the  water 
on  top.  When  the  water  level  rises  up  to  the  outlet  of  the  pipes  leading 


PUMP  HOUSE  AT  GEDNEY  FARMS,  WHITE  PLAINS,  N.  Y. 

from  the  first  to  the  second  chamber,  the  cleaner  water  is  drained  into  the 
second  chamber,  leaving  the  heavy  material  in  the  first.  This  same  process 
takes  place  in  each  of  the  other  three  chambers,  the  water  finally  draining  into 
the  concrete  tile  drains,  and  being  distributed  by  them  over  a  considerable  land 
area.  The  cess  pool  is  covered  with  a  chestnut  plank  cover  so  as  to  facilitate 
cleaning  if  this  ever  became  necessary.  A  5-inch  concrete  slab  reinforced  in 
the  bottom  with  ^2-inch  rods  placed  6  inches  apart  might  be  used  instead, 
leaving  openings  in  it  for  trap  doors. 

94 


BOX    STALLS. 

Concrete  box  stalls  offer  a  great  advantage  over  stalls  of  other  material, 
for  they  are  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer,  and  thus  help  to  prevent 
horses  becoming  restive  and  ill-tempered.  They  may  be  built  of  concrete  one 
part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand 
to  five  parts  broken  stone  or  screened  gravel,  and  should  have  walls  4  inches 
thick  and  reinforced  as  described  in  the  wall  specifications.  The  surface  can 
be  finished  off  the  same  as  outer  walls. 


BOX  STALLS  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 

VENTILATION. 

Concrete  barns,  like  houses,  are  built  either  with  a  single  solid  wall  or  with 
a  hollow  wall.  Each  type  offers  advantages  and  disadvantages.  For  in- 
stance, it  is  easier  and  cheaper  to  build  a  single  wall  on  account  of  having  no 
core  to  make  or  handle;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  these  openings  between  the 
walls  may  be  utilized  for  the  air  ducts  or  vents  through  which  the  ventilation 
in  the  barn  is  taken  care  of. 

In  designing  a  barn  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  secure  perfect  ven- 
tilation, and  this  means  (i)  a  constant  change  of  air;  (2)  the  introduction  and 

95 


distribution  of  fresh  air  without  drafts;  (3)  the  introduction  of  outside  air, 
but  not  at  the  expense  of  the  proper  temperature,  and  (4)  the  removal  of  foul 
air  without  condensation. 

The  intake  registers  for  the  removal  of  the  foul  air  should  be  placed  in  the 
walls  near  the  floor.  The  foul  air  passes  from  the  registers  through  the  hollow 
spaces  in  the  walls  and  from  there  into  the  chimney.  The  chimney  is  best 
located  near  the  center  of  the  barn,  and  should  be  high  enough  to  extend  above 
the  roofs  of  any  nearby  building.  The  fresh  air  should  be  admitted  by  registers 
located  near  the  ceiling.  The  air  near  the  ceiling  is  usually  the  warmest; 
hence,  the  fresh  air  is  heated  somewhat  before  striking  the  cattle. 


PIGGERY  AT  GEDNEY  FARMS,  WHITE  PLAINS,  N.  Y. 

HOG    PENS. 

To  construct  a  concrete  hog  pen  excavate  a  trench,  the  size  and  shape 
desired  for  finished  pen,  10  inches  wide,  and  to  a  depth  below  frost,  and  fill 
with  concrete  mixture,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  four  parts  clean, 
coarse  sand,  and  eight  parts  broken  stone  or  screened  gravel.  On  top  of  this 
foundation  build  a  wall  (See  "Walls"),  at  equal  distance  from  edge,  4  inches 
thick  and  4  feet  high,  reinforced  with  wire  fabric  or  else  with  ^-inch  rods 
placed  about  18  inches  apart  both  ways.  The  reinforcement  must  be  care- 
fully bent  around  the  corners.  Proportions  for  wall,  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement,  two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand,  and  five  parts 
broken  stone. 

96 


HOG  HOUSE  AT  BRICELYN,  MINN. 


INTERIOR  OF  PIGGERY  AT  GEDNEY  FARMS,  WHITE  PLAINS.  N.  Y. 

97 


Space  for  a  gate  should  be  left,  and  a  trough  built  similar  to  the  one  shown 
hi  picture  or  described  in  "Hog  Troughs." 

A  hog  house  can  be  added  by  building  another  wall  in  the  corner  and 
roofing  the  space  with  2^/2  inches  concrete,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement,  two  parts  clean,  coarse  sand,  and  four  parts  broken  stone.  This  slab 
must  be  reinforced  with  wire  mesh  or  steel  rods  of  size  and  spacing  given  in 
Table  for  Designing  Reinforced  Concrete  Beams  and  Slabs.  Flooring  may  be 
put  in  same  as  in  "Cellar  Floors"  (see  page  86). 


BOTTLING  ROOM  IN  DAIRY  HOUSE  AT  BROOKSIDE  FARMS,  NEWBURGH,  N.  Y. 


DAIRIES. 

The  dairy  may  be  connected  by  a  passage  way  with  the  barns  or  may  be 
in  a  building  by  itself.  In  either  case,  concrete  had  best  be  used  throughout 
for  the  various  rooms :  the  receiving  room,  the  bottling  room,  the  closets,  the 
refrigerator,  the  cold  storage  room,  the  shower  baths  and  the  clothes  closet; 
also  for  all  the  various  accessories,  such  as  the  troughs  for  the  milk  cans  and 
bottles. 

98 


28  BY  30-FOOT  REINFORCED  CONCRETE  MILK  HOUSE  AT  BEACH  FARM  DAIRY,  AT  COLDWATER,  MICH. 


WELL  AND  CELLAR  AT  MARSHFIELD,  MO. 
99 


ICE  BOXES. 

Since  concrete  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat  and  cold,  it  is  a  good  material 
for  an  ice  box.  It  may  also  readily  be  made  with  one  or  two  air  spaces  in 
the  walls  so  as  to  make  an  economical  storage  box.  Ice  boxes  are  sometimes 
built  as  a  part  of  a  new  building,  and  sometimes  are  built  onto  an  old  building. 
An  ice  box  is  not  in  the  least  affected  by  the  hard  usage  it  receives  by  having 
heavy  milk  cans  thrown  against  it. 


6i/n. 


j/n.  Boards 


Cross   vS  e  c// 0/7 

gfr**y  :JCTag^^flEB 


W. 


1 


1 


Longifudinal  Sect/on 
Fig.  30.     Solid  Wall  Concrete  Ice  Box. 

An  ice  box  should  be  made  in  the  place  where  it  is  to  set,  as  it  will  be 
too  heavy  to  move.  Build  outside  forms  of  i-inch  tongued-and-grooved  and 
planed  boards.  Cleat  these  lightly  together  and  run  a  brace  back  to  hold  in 
place.  Make  a  light  box  or  use  one  already  made  for  the  inside  forms,  oiling 
or  greasing  it  well  before  placing  the  concrete.  Make  the  wall  8  inches  thick 
if  one  air  space  is  required,  or  10  inches  thick  for  two  air  spaces.  To  form  the 
air  space,  place  2-inch  plank  on  end  2  inches  from  the  form  and  in  pairs  so 
that  each  thickness  of  wall  will  be  2  inches  and  these  2-inch  walls  will  be  con- 


100 


INTERIOR  OF  CONCRETE  ICE  BOX  AT  BROOKSIDE  FARMS,  NEWBURGH,  N.  Y. 


CONCRETE  ICE  BOX  IN  A  DAIRY  AT  CHICAGO,  ILL. 
101 


nected  by  aboiit  4  inches  of  concrete  at  the  ends  of  each  pair  of  plank.  By 
greasing  the  plank  thoroughly,  they  may  be  pulled  out  after  the  concrete  has 
begun  to  stiffen.  The  time  for  doing  this  will  be  about  an  hour  after  the  con- 
crete is  placed  if  it  is  made  about  the  consistency  of  mortar  for  laying  brick, 
or  about  two  hours  after  placing  if  it  is  made  thinner  than  this.  Pull  plank 
just  as  soon  as  the  surface  of  the  concrete  has  dried  off.  Leave  the  inside  and 
outside  forms  in  place  for  two  or  three  days.  To  furnish  a  place  for  a  double 
cover,  which  should  always  be  used  with  a  double  wall,  make  the  inside  sec- 
tion of  wall  lower  than  the  outside,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31.  There  should  be 
from  */2  inch  to  i  inch  space  between  the  two  wood  covers.  The  hollow 
spaces  in  the  walls  may  be  filled  either  with  cork  or  mineral  wool,  which  helps 
considerably  to  keep  the  inside  of  the  ice  box  at  a  low  temperature  with  the 
least  amount  of  ice. 

Double  Cover 

SB 

2//7.X8/S?.  PJank 

ilaned  on  all  <s  ides 


2.  in. 


Fig.  31.     Hollow  Wall  Concrete  Ice  Box. 

In  Fig.  30  is  shown  an  ice  box  in  which  two  sides  have  a  taper  so  as  to 
catch  the  wood  trays.  The  other  two  sides  need  not  be  tapered.  The  cover  is 
made  in  two  sections  so  that  only  one  need  be  removed  in  order  to  place  or 
take  anything  from  the  trays.  The  bottom  of  the  box  should  be  made  sloping 
toward  a  drain  pipe,  which  may  be  fitted  with  an  elbow  and  an  upward  bend 
which  fills  with  water  and  traps  the  air  from  entering  the  ice  box,  while  it 
allows  the  water  from  the  melting  ice  to  drain  from  the  box. 


1 02 


SILOS. 

A  silo,  which  is  a  tank  or  chamber  for  preserving  fodder  or  ensilage  by  the 
exclusion  of  air  and  water,  is  a  practical  necessity  on  every  farm. 

Concrete  silos  are  without  question  the  most  satisfactory,  for  they  are 
water-tight,  practically  air-tight  and  vermin  or  rat-proof ;  they  cannot  shrink, 
rot,  rust  or  burn  up;  they  will  not  blow  over  on  account  of  their  weight  nor 
collapse  when  empty.  Concrete  is  a  good  non-conductor  of  heat  and  cold  and 


ONE  OF  THE  SILOS  AT  GEDNEY  FARMS,  WHITE  PLAINS,  N.  Y. 

the  temperature  inside  such  a  silo  will  be  fairly  uniform  so  that  the  ensilage 
will  never  freeze  to  any  extent. 

Silos  are  generally  made  circular,  and  the  height  may  be  about  two  or 
three  times  the  diameter. 

There  are  three  ways  of  building  concrete  silos :  With  monolithic  or  solid 
walls ;  with  hollow  monolithic  walls ;  and  with  concrete  block  walls. 

Concrete  silos  are  more  economical  than  wood  because  of  their  durability. 
The  expense  varies,  of  course,  with  the  prices  of  the  ingredients  composing 
the  concrete  and  the  cost  of  the  form  work.  The  cost  of  the  gravel  and  sand 
is  generally  small,  for  there  are  comparatively  few  farms  without  a  gravel  pit 

103 


suitable  for  making  good  concrete;  hence,  it  is  in  the  handling  of  these 
materials  and  the  making  of  the  forms  that  the  principal  outlay  is  involved. 
A  reinforced  silo  can  be  built  cheaper  than  one  which  is  not  reinforced, 
because  of  the  thinner  walls  which  can  be  used. 

A  design  for  forms  and  staging  for  a  concrete  silo  is  shown  in  Fig.  32. 
The   table   gives  the   necessary  data   for  constructing  silos   of  different 
heights  and  diameters. 


Fig.  32. — Forms  and  Staging  for  Silos. 
104 


DATA  FOR  REINFORCED  CONCRETE  SILOS. 

(Including  6-Inch  Floor) . 
Proportions:     1  Part  "Atlas"  Portland  Cement  to  2  Parts  Sand  to  4  Parts  Gravel  or  Stone 


HORIZONTAL 

REINFORCEMENT 

Height 

Inside 

Thickness 

Cement 

Sand 

Stone 

Diameter 

of  Wall 

Spacing 

Size 

CP  to  C. 

Feet 

Feet 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches              Bbl. 

Cu.   Yd. 

Cu.  Yd. 

10 

5 

6 

Y± 

12 

6>2 

2 

4 

10 

10 

6 

M 

12 

isy2 

4 

8 

15 

5 

6 

M 

12 

9>o 

3 

6 

15 

8 

6 

% 

12 

14^1 

4 

8 

15 

12 

6 

3/8 

12 

24 

6K 

13 

20 

8 

6 

X 

12 

19^ 

5 

10 

20 

12 

6 

3/8 

12 

29^ 

8 

16 

20 

15 

6 

12 

38 

10 

20 

25 

10 

6 

/4 

12 

27  y2 

7y2 

15 

25 

15 

6 

y2 

12 

45 

12 

24 

25 

20 

6 

1A 

12 

62 

16X> 

33 

30 

10 

7 

>2 

12 

37 

10 

20 

30 

15 

7 

1A 

12 

58 

is  y. 

31 

30 

20 

7 

y* 

12 

80 

22  i| 

45 

40 

15 

8 

1A 

12 

80 

22  y, 

45 

40 

20 

8 

y* 

12 

114 

30V2 

61 

40 

25 

8 

% 

12 

147 

3Sy 

77 

Place  vertical  rods  same  size  as  horizontal,  2  %  feet  apart. 
A  cubic  yard  is  about  \\  single  load  or  £  of  a  double  load. 

The  method  of  laying  out  the  curves  in  order  to  make  a  section  of  the 
form  for  a  silo  shown  above  is  given  in  Fig.  33. 

The  complete  circles  can  be  laid  off  in  this  manner  on  any  level  piece  of 
ground  or  on  a  barn  floor. 

After  laying  out  the  circles,  divide  them  into  a  number  of  equal  parts  in 
order  that  the  sections  shall  be  alike,  eight  divisions  generally  being  the  most 
convenient,  for  then  the  sections  are  not  too  large  to  handle  easily,  nor  too 
small,  making  too  many  in  number.  Make  all  the  joints  between  the  sections 
on  lines  with  the  center  of  the  silo  except  one  inside  joint,  which  is  cut  on  an 
angle,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  in  order  to  permit  removing  the  inner  forms. 
This  section  which  is  cut  at  an  angle  is  placed  last  and  removed  first. 

The  curved  boards  for  the  frames  of  the  form  sections  can  be  cut  either 
from  one  wide  plank,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33,  or  from  two  narrow  planks  which 
are  tacked  together.  The  frames  may  be  covered  either  with  sheet  iron  or 
with  thin  boards  3  or  4  inches  wide  nailed  endwise  to  the  frame. 

The  forms  can  be  made  also  by  riveting  angle  irons  to  the  sheet  iron  to 
stiffen  it  instead  of  the  wood  shapes.  While  the  metal  form  is  more  expensive 
than  wood,  if  a  number  of  silos  are  to  be  built,  the  first  cost  of  the  forms  can 
be  larger,  because  it  is  divided  among  several.  One  man  making  a  form  of 
this  type  can  rent  it  to  his  neighbors,  and  in  this  way  more  than  pay  for  the 
extra  money  spent  in  making  the  forms. 

10$ 


Fig.  33- — Method  of  Laying  Out  Silo  Forms. 


Excavate  the  earth  to  a  depth  below  frost,  which  in  the  Northern  and 
Middle  States  is  about  4  feet,  while  in  the  Southern  States  3  feet,  or  even  2 
feet,  may  be  sufficient  and  of  the  required  diameter.  If  the  earth  is  hard  and 
will  stand  alone  sometimes  it  is  only  necessary  to  excavate  to  the  outside 
diameter  of  the  silo.  In  other  cases  the  diameter  of  the  circle  for  excavating 
must  be  4  or  5  feet  larger  than  the  outside  diameter  of  the  silo,  so  as  to  allow 
for  a  2  or  2^ -foot  trench  to  make  room  for  placing  and  removing  the  outer 
form.  Grease  the  forms  thoroughly.  A  mixture  of  fat  or  lard  with  kerosene 
makes  a  good  grease  for  oiling  the  forms. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  placing  the  reinforcement.  Locate  the  horizontal 
reinforcement  by  marking  on  one  or  two  of  the  4  by  4-inch  upright  studs  of 
the  scaffolding  the  location  of  all  the  rods;  then  there  will  be  no  question 
whether  or  not  the  reinforcement  is  in  the  correct  position. 

106 


Before  mixing  the  concrete,  bend  the  horizontal  rods  into  rings  so  that  they 
will  go  in  the  middle  of  the  wall.  Lap  the  ends  2  feet.  To  find  the  length  of 
rod  to  go  around  a  silo,  add  to  the  inside  diameter  the  thickness  of  one  wall 
and  multiply  this  sum  by  3  1/7.  This  gives  the  circumference  of  the  center 
line  of  the  wall.  If  the  length  of  this  circumference  is  not  too  long  for  one 
rod,  add  2  feet  for  the  lap.  If  two  rods  are  necessary,  add  2  feet  for  each  lap ; 
that  is,  make  every  rod  2  feet  longer  than  is  required  for  the  actual  circum- 


CONCRETE  SILO  AT  CHARLOTTESVILLE.  VA. 


ference.  By  placing  the  inside  form  of  the  silo  first,  the  reinforcement  may 
be  set  in  advance  of  the  concreting,  the  horizontal  rods  being  tied  to  the 
verticals  by  soft  wire  about  1/16  inch  diameter.  This  is  a  better  way  than  to 
place  the  horizontal  rods  as  the  concrete  is  being  laid.  The  table  gives  the 
distance  apart  of  the  horizontal  rods  at  the  bottom  of  the  silo.  Increase  the 
spacing  slightly  toward  the  top  so  that  at  the  top  the  rods  are  double  the 
distance  apart  they  are  at  the  bottom. 

107 


Mix  the  concrete,  using  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  parts 
clean  sand  and  four  parts  broken  stone  or  screened  gravel.  For  mixing  of  the 
concrete,  see  page  24.  Make  the  mixture  of  sloppy  consistency  about  like 
heavy  cream,  place  it  in  the  forms  and  ram  lightly  to  distribute  the  mortar 
and  drive  out  air  bubbles.  Before  removing  the  forms,  clean  off  the  top  of  the 
wall  with  a  stiff  wire  brush  or  an  old  horse  curry  comb,  and  raise  the  forms 
for  the  next  filling.  Before  placing  the  new  concrete,  wet  thoroughly  the  sur- 
face and  spread  a  ^-inch  layer  of  mortar  mixed  about  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement  to  one  part  sand  and  then  place  the  concrete.  Care  must  be 


CONCRETE  SILOS  AT  EAST  NORWICH,  L.  I. 

(The  dimensions  of  these  silos  are  as  follows:  Footing,  4  feet  below  ground;  20  feet  inside  diameter;  24  feet  above 
ground;  12-inch  walls  reinforced  vertically  with  1-inch  rods  4  feet  c.  to  c.  and  horizontally  with  J^-inch  rods  3  feet 
c.  to  c.  There  were  443  bags  of  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  used.) 

used  in  tamping  the  concrete,  not  to  push  the  rods  to  one  or  the  other  side  of 
the  form,  but  to  keep  them  in  the  center  of  the  wall. 

As  soon  as  the  forms  are  removed  roughen  the  inside  surface  by  scraping 
off  the  skin  of  cement  with  a  wire  brush  or  a  brick;  as  soon  as  the  walls  of 
the  silo  are  completed  wet  the  inside  surface  thoroughly  with  clean  water,  and 
plaster  it  with  not  over  a  i/i6-inch  coat  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement  to  one  part  clean,  coarse  sand,  screened  through  a  fine  screen.  Pro- 

108 


tect  the  surface  from  the  sun  and  wet  twice  a  day  for  seven  days.  It  is  very 
important  to  have  this  inside  surface  perfectly  smooth,  for  when  the  ensilage 
settles  after  being  packed,  any  roughness  of  the  walls  is  liable  to  cause  the 
cornstalks  to  catch  and  prevent  them  settling  evenly.  The  ensilage  around  the 
air  space  thus  formed  becomes  moldy  and  must  be  thrown  away.  This  same 
thing  occurs  where  the  concrete  is  laid  with  too  little  water.  The  concrete 
then  is  porous  and  sucks  out  the  moisture  from  the  ensilage,  forming  a  dry 
skin  of  material  next  to  the  wall. 

Defaif  ofCffufc  DC. 
ff  very  on  Line  B-B. 


Fig.  34.    Details  of  Silo  Built  at  U.  S.  Soldiers'  Home,  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  outside  surface  of  the  silo  is  generally  good  enough  if  it  is  rubbed 
down  with  a  board  or  a  brick,  using  water  with  it,  immediately  after  taking  off 
the  forms  while  the  concrete  is  fairly  soft  so  as  to  take  off  the  joint  ridges 
and  leave  a  uniform  surface.  By  removing  the  forms  the  next  day  after  laying 
the  concrete,  it  is  possible  then  to  entirely  remove  the  skin  of  cement,  leaving 
the  sand  and  stone  exposed  enough  to  give  a  very  pleasing  finish. 

For  convenience  in  handling  the  ensilage,  it  is  well  to  leave  openings  or 
doors  about  20  inches  square  at  least  every  three  feet  on  one  side  of  the  silo. 

109 


Do 


or 


n  P/ank 


iH 
H 
ii 

1 

i 

i 
i 

•       1 

I 
1 

1  — 

•(- 

1 

i 

____ 

i 
• 

~T 

i 

i 

;! 

' 

i 

i 
i 

i1 

c 

1  . 

-  -  -Jf^m 

i 

13 

ll 

•  i 

i1 

1 

1 

i 

j 

! 

1 
1 
1 

i 

~_Hi 

IT 


--D 


35-    Door  for  Silo  at  East  Norwich,   L.  I.,  N.  Y. 


CONCRETE  SILO  FOUNDATION  AT  BRICELYN,  MINN. 
110 


When  desired,  an  opening  20  inches  wide  may  be  left  the  entire  height  of  the 
silo  if  a  part  of  the  horizontal  reinforcement  is  run  across  the  opening  to 
strengthen  it;  this  opening  is  to  be  closed  by  a  series  of  wooden  doors.  A 
good  design  for  a  door  or  a  series  of  doors  is  shown  in  Fig.  35. 

A  chute  running  to  the  full  height  of  the  silo  has  sometimes  been  built 
around  these  doors  or  openings  being  constructed  simultaneously  with  the 


SILO  AT  SOUTH  CHARLESTOWN,  OHIO 

walls.  Make  the  walls  of  the  chute  4  inches  thick  and  reinforce  them.  A 
convenient  size  for  such  a  chute  is  about  4  feet  along  the  face  and  25/2  feet  at 
the  sides. 

One  method  of  building  a  chute  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  34.  The  chute  is 
made  of  1 2-inch  tiles  and  pipe,  each  length  being  24  inches.  Alternate  lengths 
of  plain  pipe  and  tiles  were  used  so  as  to  bring  the  openings  4  feet  apart. 

in 


HOLLOW  WALL  SILOS. 

If  it  is  desired  to  make  the  silo  with  a  hollow  wall,  the  construction  can 
be  made  similar  to  the  ice-box  walls  described  on  page  102.  The  inside  section 
of  the  wall  of  the  silo  is  made  the  thickness  required  in  the  silo  table,  page  105, 
and  the  other  walls  3  inches  thick  with  lighter  reinforcement.  Formerly  it 
was  thought  necessary  to  make  all  silos  of  hollow  wall  construction,  but  this 
is  now  practically  superseded  by  the  solid  wall  built  with  dense  wet  mixed 
concrete. 

' 


STORAGE  WATER  TANK  AT  BOODY,  ILL. 

TANKS. 

Concrete  tanks,  if  properly  built,  are  superior  in  all  respects  to  any  other 
kind  of  a  tank  for  storing  water  or  grain.  They  are  easy  to  clean,  and  do  not 
rot  or  rust.  The  concrete  mixture  should  be  in  proportions  one  part 
"ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  one  and  one-half  parts  clean  but  rather  fine 
sand  to  three  parts  screened  gravel  or  broken  stone. 

A  tank  in  order  to  withstand  water  pressure  and  not  leak  is  best  built  by 
laying  the  concrete  without  stopping.  Even  then  there  are  other  essential 
things  which,  if  disregarded,  will  produce  a  leaky  tank.  The  concrete  must 
be  mixed  so  wet  that  it  will  flow  over  and  around  the  metal  reinforcement  and 
against  the  forms.  The  materials  for  the  concrete  must  be  very  carefully 
proportioned  and  the  stones  small  enough  to  pass  a  54-inch  mesh  screen.  A 


112 


concrete  made  by  using  very  clean  screened  gravel  makes  a  denser  concrete 
than  broken  stone;  it  flows  into  place  better  and  is  not  so  apt  to  have  voids 
and  stone  pockets  which  let  through  the  water. 

SQUARE  TANKS  (Small).  Square  tanks  do  not  stand  water  pressure  so 
well  as  round  because  the  sides  tend  to  bulge,  but  they  are  all  right  if  not 
more  than  4  feet  deep  and  8  feet  square.  Build  outside  forms  12  inches  wider, 


WATER  TANK,  NEAR  MORTON,  ILL. 

12  inches  longer  and  6  inches  deeper  than  the  inside  of  the  finished  tank.  Set 
mesh  reinforcement,  or  else  ^-inch  rods  running  both  ways  and  6  inches  apart, 
in  bottom  of  tank  and  the  reinforcement  given  for  a  5-foot  round  tank  in  the 
sides.  Allow  the  vertical  rods  to  project  down  into  the  bottom  and  the  bottom 
rods  to  project  up  into  the  sides.  Tie  horizontal  rods  to  vertical  by  i/i6-inch 
soft  wire.  Place  inner  form  4  inches  from  the  outside  form.  This  form  can 
rest  on  iron  pins  driven  into  the  ground.  Grease  forms  thoroughly.  Put 
concrete  into  forms  at  one  continuous  operation  so  that  there  will  be  no  joints 
between  courses,  making  it  of  the  consistency  of  heavy  cream.  As  the 
concrete  is  placed  in  the  bottom,  lift  the  reinforcement  a  little  to  allow  the 

113 


concrete  to  get  in  under  it.  When  filling  the  wall  take  care  to  keep  the 
reinforcement  in  place.  By  working  carefully,  the  inside  form  may  be 
removed  as  soon  as  the  concrete  has  become  dry  on  top,  say,  in  two  or  three 
hours,  although  a  better  way  is  to  leave  it  for  two  or  three  days  and  knock 
the  form  to  pieces.  Leave  outside  form  in  place  for  three  or  four  days. 
After  the  concrete  has  set  and  the  forms  are  removed,  paint  inside  of  the  tank 
with  pure  cement  mixed  with  water  to  the  consistency  of  cream  and  brush  in 


WATER  TANK  AT  MORTON,  ILL. 

well.  This  should  prevent  any  leakage.  Protect  the  tank  from  the  sun  till 
ready  to  use  and  wet  two  or  three  times  a  day  for  a  week  after  removing  the 
forms.  Do  not  fill  with  water  until  tank  is  two  weeks  old. 

ROUND  TANKS.  Follow  exactly  the  same  methods  given  for  square  tanks, 
except  using  thicknesses  and  reinforcement  given  in  the  table.  Lay  out 
circular  forms  as  described  on  page  20  or  page  106.  Set  the  reinforcerhWnt  in 
place  and  pour  the  concrete  in  the  same  way  as  for  square  tanks. 

114 


WELL  HOUSE  WITH  HEAVY  CONCRETE  COLUMNS  FOR  SUPPORTING  STEEL  FRAME  OF  HIGH 
WATER  TANK  AT  COLUMBIA,  MO. 


WATER  TANK,  SO.  CHARLESTON,  O. 
"5 


Tanks  sometimes  have  to  be  constructed  by  filling  one  or  two  sections  of 
forms  each  day,  letting  it  set  over  night  and  continuing  the  next  day.  This 
is  bad  practice  because  it  is  readily  seen  that  a  joint  is  formed  on  the  surface 
of  each  layer  of  concrete  which  is  placed  on  top  of  another  layer  that  has  set 
up  and  hardened;  to  make  the  joint  as  tight  as  possible  the  top  surface  of  the 
old  concrete  must  be  specially  treated.  The  operation  for  treating  this 
surface  is  as  follows:  Scrape  off  all  dirt  and  scum  from  the  old  surface,  pick 
it  with  a  pick  or  scrub  it  thoroughly  with  a  wire  brush  or  horse  curry  comb 
in  order  to  remove  all  surface  mortar  and  scum  and  leave  a  very  rough 


WATER  TANK  AT  BERRY  HILL,  L.  I.,  N.  Y. 

surface.  To  make  the  bond  between  this  cleaned  surface  and  the  new 
concrete,  wet  it  thoroughly,  soaking  it  well,  place  a  y^-inch  to  ^-inch  layer 
of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  one  part  sand,  or,  better  still,  a 
layer  of  pure  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  on  the  cleaned  surface,  and  before 
this  has  set  or  has  begun  to  stiffen  place  the  new  concrete  upon  it.  In  some 
cases  a  positive  bond  between  the  old  and  new  concrete  work  is  used  in 
addition  to  the  above  by  imbedding  in  the  top  of  the  last  mass  of  concrete 
laid  each  day  a  4  by  4-inch  piece  or  a  V-shaped  stick  of  timber.  This  timber, 
which  is  removed  the  next  morning,  will  form  a  groove  to  bond  the  new  and 
old  concrete  together. 

116 


If  the  tank  is  built  above  ground,  remove  sod  and  earth  until  good  firm 
material  is  reached.  Excavate  in  any  case  at  least  6  inches  below  the  bottom 
of  the  tank  and  build  foundation  6  inches  thick  of  screened  gravel  or  cinders 
or  crushed  stone,  spreading  in  4-inch  layers  and  ramming  hard.  Be  sure 
that  this  foundation  is  drained  so  that  the  water  cannot  collect  and  freeze  in  it. 

For  inlets  and  outlets  to  tanks  place  pieces  of  pipe  in  the  concrete  while 
it  is  being  deposited. 

Tanks  may  be  roofed  with  either  a  wooden  or  concrete  roof.  For  concrete 
lay  the  concrete  on  a  very  flat  slope  and  reinforce  it  as  described  in  the  table 
for  concrete  beams  and  slabs  on  pages  30  and  31.  A  wooden  roof  is  apt  to  be 
cheaper  and  will  answer  most  purposes. 


REINFORCEMENT    FOR   TANKS. 

The  table  which  follows  gives  a  list  of  sizes  of  steel  required  for  tanks  of 
several  different  dimensions,  allowing  ample  factor  of  safety.  It  is  extremely 
important  that  the  horizontal  steel  be  placed  exactly  as  given.  The  entire 
pressure  of  the  water  is  assumed,  according  to  the  very  best  practice,  to  be 
taken  by  the  steel,  as  concrete  is  not  reliable  in  tension  unless  reinforced. 
The  thickness  of  concrete  is  only  required  to  imbed  the  steel  and  to  make  the 
tank  water-tight,  and  should  vary  with  the  height  of  the  tank,  but  not  neces- 
sarily with  the  diameter.  A  minimum  thickness  of  4  inches  for  a  5-foot  tank, 
running  up  to  10  inches  for  a  tank  15  feet  deep,  is  suggested. 
DATA  FOR  REINFORCED  CONCRETE  TANKS. 


(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

(6) 

(7) 

(8) 

Depth 

Diameter 

Thickness 
of 

Diameter 
Circumfer- 

Spacing 
Circumfer- 

Spacing 
Circumfer- 

Diameter 
Vertical 

Spacing 
Vertical 

Concrete 

ential  Rods 

ential  Rods 

ential  Rods 

Rods 

Rods 

at  Bottom 

at  Top 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Ft. 

5     by      5 

6 

M 

6 

9 

y» 

1H 

5      "      10 

6 

5/16 

6 

9 

% 

^A 

10      "      10 

8 

y% 

6 

12 

% 

2H 

10      "      15 

8 

y* 

6 

12 

1A 

3 

15      "      10 

12 

1A 

6 

15 

1A 

2K 

15      "      15 

12 

% 

6 

15 

% 

3 

NOTE. — Bend  circumferential  rods  in  rings,  place  in  center  of  wall  and  lap  ends  2  feet.  Increase,  gradually, 
spacing  of  circumferential  rods  from  bottom  to  top. 

GRAIN   ELEVATORS. 

Concrete  grain  elevators  of  immense  size  are  being  built  all  over  the 
country  by  the  railroads.  For  the  storage  of  grain  on  the  farm  or  in  a  village, 
grain  elevators  can  be  built  like  silos,  and  the  descriptive  matter  and  amount 
of  reinforcement  under  silos,  pages  103  to  113,  will  apply.  An  elevator  built  in 
this  way  is  proof  against  rats  and  other  vermin,  and  is  water-tight. 

117 


CORN  CRIBS. 

The  waste  caused  each  year  by  rats  and  mice  in  corn  cribs  is  enormous. 
This  loss  can  be  prevented  by  constructing  the  entire  corn  crib  of  concrete,  as 
well  as  the  floor,  which  makes  it  also  fireproof. 

The  corn  crib  may  be  constructed  with  5  x  5-inch  concrete  posts,  spaced  4 
feet  on  centers,  and  extending  from  the  concrete  foundation  to  the  roof  plate, 
which  may  also  be  a  beam  of  concrete  tying  the  posts  together  and  supporting 
the  wooden  roof.  On  two  of  the  opposite  sides  of  the  posts  mold  a  slot  i  inch 
deep  by  2  inches  wide  its  entire  length.  The  sides  of  the  crib  may  consist  of 


40  BY  60-FOOT  STOREHOUSE  AT  LOWVILLE   N.  Y..  WITH  CONCRETE  PIERS 

a  series  of  slats  or  slabs.  Cast  or  mold  these  separately  2  inches  thick  by  5 
inches  high  by  3  feet  8  inches  long,  and  reinforce  with  two  ^-inch  rods  in  the 
same  way  that  fence  posts  are  molded.  After  thoroughly  seasoning,  place 
the  slats  in  the  slots  in  the  posts  so  that  there  is  a  %-inch  opening  between 
them.  To  accomplish  this  place  one  slat,  then  throw  some  mortar  in  the 
groove  in  the  post  on  top  of  it.  Place  the  next  slat,  and  push  it  into  the 
mortar  at  the  joint  so  that  a  ^2-inch  space  remains  between  the  two  slats. 
Continue  in  this  way  up  to  the  plate. 

The  mix  of  concrete  should  be  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to 
two  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  to  three  parts  fine  screened  gravel,  or  one  part 
"ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  four  parts  unscreened  gravel  or  sand. 

118 


CISTERN. 

Make  a  circular  excavation  16  inches  wider  than  the  desired  diameter  of 
the  cistern,  or  allow  for  a  wall  two-thirds  the  thickness  of  a  brick  wall  that 
would  be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  and  from  14  feet  to  16  feet  deep.  Make 
a  cylindrical  inner  form  (see  Circular  Form)  the  outside  diameter  of  which 
shall  be  the  diameter  of  the  cistern.  The  form  should  be  about  9  feet  long 


CONCRETE  CISTERN  AT  ST.  CHARLES,  ILL. 

for  a  14-foot  hole,  and  n  feet  long  for  one  16  feet  deep.  Saw  the  form  length- 
wise into  equal  parts  for  convenience  in  handling.  Lower  the  sections  into 
the  cistern  and  there  unite  them  to  form  a  circle  (Fig.  No.  36),  blocking  up  at 
intervals  six  inches  above  the  bottom  of  excavation.  (Withdraw  blocking 
after  filling  in  spaces  between  with  concrete  and  then  fill  holes  left  by  blocking 
with  rich  mortar.) 


119 


Make  concrete  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  parts  clean, 
coarse  sand  and  four  parts  broken  stone  or  gravel.  Mix  just  soft  enough  to 
pour.  Fill  in  space  between  the  form  and  the  earth  with  concrete,  and  puddle 
it  to  prevent  the  formation  of  stone  pockets,  using  a  long  scantling  for  the 
purpose  and  also  a  long-handled  paddle  for  working  between  the  concrete 
and  the  form.  To  construct  the  dome  without  using  an  expensive  form, 
proceed  as  follows :  Across  top  of  the  form  build  a  floor,  leaving  a  hole  in  the 
center  two  feet  square.  Brace  this  floor  well  with  wooden  posts  resting  on 
the  bottom  of  the  cistern.  Around  the  edges  of  hole,  and  resting  on  the  floor 


Fig.  36.     Concrete  Cistern. 

described,  construct  a  vertical  form  extending  up  to  the  level  of  the  ground. 

Build  a  cone-shaped  mold  of  very  fine  wet  sand  from  the  outer  edge  of 
the  flooring  to  the  top  of  the  form  around  the  square  hole  and  smooth  with 
wooden  float.  Place  a  layer  of  concrete  four  inches  thick  over  the  sand  so 
that  the  edge  will  rest  on  the  side  wall. 

Let  concrete  set  for  a  week,  then  remove  one  of  the  floor  boards  and  let 
the  sand  fall  gradually  to  the  bottom  of  the  cistern.  When  all  boards  and 
forms  are  removed  they  can  be  easily  passed  through  the  two-foot  aperture 
and  the  sand  taken  out  of  the  cistern  by  means  of  a  pail  lowered  with  a  rope. 
This  does  away  with  all  expensive  forms  and  is  perfectly  feasible.  The 


120 


bottom  of  the  cistern  should  be  built  at  the  same  time  as  the  side  walls  and 
should  be  of  the  same  mixture,  six  inches  thick. 

SQUARE    CISTERNS. 

Excavate  to  desired  depth  and  put  in  6  inches  concrete  floor,  one  part 
"ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  parts  sand  and  four  parts  broken  stone. 
As  soon  as  practicable,  put  up  forms  for  8-inch  walls  (see  Walls)  and  build 
the  four  walls  simultaneously.  If  more  than  8  feet  square,  walls  should  be 
reinforced  with  a  woven  wire  fabric  or  steel  rods. 


CONCRETE  CISTERN  AT  MONROE,  N.  J. 

WELL    CURBS. 

Concrete  makes  the  best  well  curb,  as  it  keeps  out  the  surface  water  and 
is  easily  kept  clean. 

After  the  well  has  been  dug  to  the  desired  depth,  and  the  sides  properly 
braced  in  short  sections  so  that  the  earth  cannot  cave  in,  build  a  circular  form 
8  inches  smaller  than  the  diameter  of  the  hole,  and  4  feet  long.  (See  Circular 
Forms.)  Lower  to  the  bottom  in  sections  and  adjust  so  that  there  are  4 
inches  between  the  form  and  the  side  of  the  hole.  Place  concrete  mixture,  one 
part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand 

121 


SPRING  CURB  AT  MONROE,  N.  J. 


CURB  IN  INTERIOR  OF  SPRING  HOUSE  AT  LAKE  MASCOMA,  N.  H. 

122 


and  five  parts  broken  stone  or  gravel,  in  this  space.  To  allow  the  water  to 
get  into  the  well,  place  a  couple  of  pints  of  loose,  broken  stones  in  "pockets" 
every  few  feet  until  the  water  level  is  reached.  After  filling  the  form  to  the 
top  and  allowing  it  to  set  over  night,  or  until  the  concrete  will  bear  pressure 
of  the  thumb,  raise  it  3  feet,  brace  securely  and  repeat  until  ground  level  is 
reached.  A  slab  4  inches  thick  and  8  feet  square  should  be  built  around  the 
top  of  the  well,  first  replacing  surface  soil  with  a  layer  of  cinders  or  clean 
gravel,  well  rammed,  about  12  inches  thick. 


SPRING  CURB  AT  MONROE,  N.  J. 


ICE    HOUSES. 

There  has  been  considerable  discussion  as  to  whether  or  not  concrete  ice 
houses  are  a  success.  After  thorough  investigation  the  conclusion  has  been 
reached  that  there  are  none  better,  if  properly  built — i.  e.,  with  a  double  wall. 

Excavate  a  foot  below  the  desired  depth  and  put  in  a  layer  of  coarse 
gravel  or  broken  stone,  ramming  hard.  This  makes  a  good  floor 
and  leaves  plenty  of  drainage.  Set  up  forms  in  shape  finished  structure  is 
desired,  allowing  16  inches  for  a  wall,  and  build  foundation  one  part 

123 


ICE  HOUSE  AT  MONMOUTH,  ILL. 


ICE  HOUSE  AT  BABYLON,  L.  I. 
124 


"ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  three  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  six  parts 
broken  stone,  16  inches  wide  by  4  feet  deep,  or  below  frost.  The  wall  should 
be  built  as  shown  in  Hollow  Walls,  making  two  3-inch  walls  with  a  6-inch 
space,  each  reinforced  with  one-quarter-inch  rods  placed  12  inches  apart  in 
both  directions.  Mixture:  One  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  parts 
clean,  coarse  sand  and  four  parts  broken  stone.  The  wall  should  be  built  in 
sections  about  2  feet  high  at  a  time,  and  the  outer  and  inner  walls  should  be 
bound  together  by  placing  galvanized  iron  strips,  one  inch  broad  by  one-sixth 


15  BY  20-FOOT  CONCRETE  ICE  HOUSE  ATTACHED  TO  COW  BARN  AT  LOWVILLE,  N.  Y. 

inch,  and  turned  up  about  an  inch  at  each  end  between  the  first  and  second 
section,  after  the  first  section  of  the  inner  form  has  been  removed.  These 
strips  will  not  only  strengthen  the  wall,  but  will  serve  as  a  convenient  footing 
for  the  second  tier  of  inner  forms,  etc.  The  ends  and  top  should  be  filled 
in  solid  to  the  depth  of  6  inches,  leaving  no  openings  for  the  air  to  circulate. 
The  roof  should  be  made  slanting,  and  after  the  lower  or  inner  side  is 
completed  5  inches  of  sand  may  be  placed  on  top  and  leveled  off.  The  upper 
or  outer  surface  of  the  roof  can  then  be  laid,  with  suitable  reinforcement, 
directly  upon  the  sand,  and  carefully  trowelled  as  soon  as  it  is  partly  set.  The 
sand  is  let  out  at  an  opening  left  for  the  purpose  at  the  sides  when  the  concrete 
has  dried  for  a  couple  of  weeks.  There  should  be  several  square  blocks  of 

125 


concrete  placed  so  as  to  connect  the  two,  and  a  strong  concrete  beam  should 
form  the  ridgepole.  All  openings  between  the  walls  and  roof  and  the  two 
layers  of  roof  should  be  sealed  up  solid,  so  as  to  give  a  dead  air  space  between 
them.  Shrinkage  cracks  are  liable  to  form  on  large  concrete  roof  surfaces 
so  that  if  a  surface  is  over  20  feet  square  it  should  be  covered  with  tar  and 
gravel  or  some  other  kind  of  roofing. 

For  a  small  house  the  dimensions  of  beams  and  slabs  for  roof  may  be 
obtained  from  table  of  Reinforced  Beams  and  Slabs,  but  for  a  large  house 
money  will  be  saved  and  safety  assured  by  consulting  an  engineer  or  architect 
experienced  in  concrete  design. 


ROOT  CELLAR  AT  KNOXVILLE,  IOWA 

ROOT    CELLARS. 

Root  cellars  are  usually  built  half  below  and  half  above  the  level  of  the 
ground.  Excavate  16  inches  below  the  desired  level  of  the  floor,  and  around 
the  sides  build  a  foundation  12  inches  broad,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement,  three  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  six  parts  broken  stone  or  gravel. 
Remove  the  form  and  fill  between  the  foundations  to  a  depth  of  12  inches 
with  porous  material,  tamping  well.  On  this  build  a  floor  as  described  under 
Cellar  Floors,  p.  86.  On  the  foundation  and  at  equal  distance  from  either  edge 

126 


ENTRANCE  TO  ROOT  CELLAR,  UNDER  WAGON  HOUSE,  AT  U.  S.  SOLDIERS*  HOME, 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


ROOT  CELLAR,  BABYLON,  L.  I. 
127 


erect  a  solid  wall  8  inches  thick  (see  Walls),  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement,  two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  five  parts  cinders, 
broken  stone  or  gravel,  leaving  an  opening  at  one  end  for  the  steps  (see 
Steps).  Build  up  the  end  walls  so  as  to  form  a  point  in  the  middle  and 
high  enough  to  give  the  roof  a  sufficient  pitch  to  shed  the  rain. 

Near  the  top  at  each  end,  openings  for  windows  should  be  left  and  sash 
fitted  and  plastered  in  after  the  concrete  has  set  and  forms  have  been  removed. 

Bins  should  be  built  of  size  and  height  to  suit  convenience,  with  walls  4 
inches  thick  and  reinforced  with  one-quarter-inch  rods  placed  12  inches  apart 
horizontally  and  vertically. 


ROOT  CELLAR  AT  GLEN  COVE,  L.  I. 


If  a  concrete  roof  is  desired,  forms  should  be  erected  and  a  roof  3  inches 
thick  laid  on.  On  the  top  of  this,  and  before  the  concrete  is  dry,  a  layer 
one-quarter  inch  thick  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  and  one  part 
sand  should  be  placed,  trowelled  when  partially  set,  and  smoothed  with  a 
wooden  float.  This  surface  must  be  wet  three  times  a  day  for  a  week  or  two. 
Forms  should  not  be  removed  from  roof  for  at  least  three  weeks. 

Should  the  roof  be  sufficiently  long  to  require  support  other  than  the 
concrete  beam  that  forms  the  ridge  pole  (see  section  on  Reinforced  Concrete), 
posts  can  be  built  in  place  8  inches  square. 

128 


Roof  and  steps  should  be  reinforced  with  a  woven  wire  fabric  or  with 
steel  rods. 

MUSHROOM    CELLARS. 

Mushroom  cellars  should  be  built  at  least  two-thirds  below  the  level  of  the 
ground  to  obtain  the  best  results. 

Excavate  to  the  desired  depth,  and  around  the  edge  dig  a  trench  12  inches 
deep  and  16  inches  broad.  In  this  lay  a  foundation  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement,  three  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  six  parts  broken  stone  or 
gravel.  On  the  foundations  and  at  equal  distance  from  either  edge  build  a 
solid  wall  (See  Walls)  8  inches  thick;  mixture,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement,  two  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  four  parts  broken  stone,  gravel  or 
cinders. 


INTERIOR  OF  MUSHROOM  CELLAR  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 

Build  a  concrete  roof  3  inches  thick,  supported  by  concrete  beams  and 
posts  (see  Table,  Reinforced  Concrete  Beams  and  Slabs).  An  opening  should 
be  left  at  one  side  for  steps  (see  Steps).  All  walls,  posts,  beams  and  roof 
should  be  reinforced.  A  coat  of  grout,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement 
to  one  part  fine,  clean  sand  mixed  to  the  consistency  of  cream,  may  be  applied 
to  the  whole  exterior  with  a  brush  if  a  very  smooth  surface  is  required. 

129 


ARCH  DRIVEWAYS. 

Every  farm  or  house  along  a  country  road  must  have  one  or  more  bridges 
or  culverts  where  the  driveways  span  the  trench  or  ditch  alongside  the  road. 
These  arches  or  small  bridges  should  be  constructed  of  concrete,  for  then  they 
will  not  continually  rot  out  and  need  repairing  and  renewal. 

An  arch  driveway  consists  of  a  slab  supported  on  each  side  by  a  beam 
which  spans  the  ditch.  The  size  of  the  beams,  the  thickness  of  the  slab, 
and  the  amount  and  spacing  of  the  reinforcement  in  the  beams  and  slab  can 
be  taken  directly  from  the  table  on  page  30.  For  example,  take  an  arch 


ARCH  DRIVEWAY  NEAR  COLD  SPRINGS  HARBOR,  L.  I. 

driveway  of  1 2-foot  span,  having  an  8-foot  roadway.  The  heaviest  loading, 
namely,  125  pounds  per  square  foot,  will  be  taken  as  given  in  the  table. 
Beams  9  inches  wide  and  16  inches  deep,  reinforced  in  the  bottom  with  four 
9- 1 6-inch  rods,  are  required.  The  slab  must  be  3  inches  thick,  and  be  rein- 
forced with  5- 1 6-inch  rods  placed  every  6  inches. 

The  arch  or  slab  should  be  constructed  during  a  dry  spell,  in  order  that 
little  or  no  water  need  be  taken  care  of  in  the  ditch.  The  forms  for  the  slab 
may  be  made  of  wood  if  desired,  or  it  can  be  constructed  as  follows:  If  the 

130 


ditch  is  not  entirely  dry,  place  a  closed  wood  trough  or  a  pipe  in  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch,  to  take  care  of  the  small  amount  of  water.  Throw  the  earth  which 
is  excavated  for  the  side  walls  into  the  ditch,  and,  if  necessary,  borrow  sand 
from  the  bank  beyond  to  bring  the  pile  of  sand  to  a  height  level  with  the 
bottom  of  the  new  arch  or  slab  to  be  built  and  wet  it  thoroughly.  Tamp  this 
fill  and  level  off  the  top  of  the  pile.  Place  some  boards  for  the  side  walls,  and 
brace  them.  Place  the  necessary  reinforcement,  upon  which  lay  the  concrete, 
composed  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  with  two  parts  clean, 
coarse  sand  and  four  parts  screened  gravel  or  stone.  After  the  concrete  has 
set  for  a  week  or  two,  shovel  out  the  earth  from  under  the  arch,  and  the  drive- 
way is  ready  for  use. 


SPILLWAY  AT  DUMONT,  N.  J. 

CULVERT    DRIVEWAYS. 

Culvert  driveways  are  used  to  span  small,  shallow  runways  of  water. 

The  bore  or  opening  through  which  the  water  passes  is  generally  built 
circular,  although  a  square  or  rectangular  opening  may  be  used  as  well.  Line 
the  bottom  or  invert  of  the  opening  with  small  cobble  stones  or  gravel,  from 
which  the  sand  has  been  screened.  To  make  a  circular  bore  or  opening,  get 


two  or  three  flour  barrels  or  cement  barrels,  with  the  heads  in,  place  them 
end  to  end  on  the  cobble  or  gravel  base  just  laid,  and  brace  them  in  position 
so  that  they  will  not  be  moved  when  placing  the  concrete.  If  desired,  a  layer 
of  concrete  can  first  be  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  on  which  the  barrels  can 
be  placed  and  braced.  After  placing  the  barrels  and  side  forms  in  position, 
lay  the  rest  of  the  concrete,  which  should  be  composed  of  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement  to  two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  to  five  parts 
gravel  or  broken  stone.  The  walls  should  be  about  10  inches  thick  and  the 
top  of  the  arch  6  inches  thick.  To  remove  the  forms,  knock  in  the  heads  of 
the  barrels  and  pry  out  the  staves. 

WATER  PIPES  UNDER  DRIVEWAYS.  Concrete  water  pipes,  which  are 
covered  over  with  earth,  furnish  a  very  good  means  for  taking  care  of  water 
underneath  driveways.  The  pipes  are  constructed  in  the  same  manner  as  the 


STUCCO   CHICKEN  HOUSE  AT  ALLENTOWN,   PA. 

concrete  tile,  described  on  page  91,  and  may  be  made  up  to  12  or  16  inches 
in  diameter. 

HEN   NESTING   HOUSES. 

Hen  nesting  houses  constructed  of  concrete  are  better  and  if  a  number 
are  to  be  built  are  cheaper  than  if  constructed  of  any  other  material.  It  is 
impossible  to  keep  vermin  from  any  nesting  house,  and  consequently  the 

132 


nests  must  be  cleaned  artificially.  The  only  sure  way  to  clean  a  nest  is  by 
the  burning  out  process.  This  is  impossible,  of  course,  where  the  nests  are 
constructed  of  wood,  and  the  only  way  therefore  is  to  burn  them  every  so 
often  and  build  new  ones. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  the  advantages  of  a  concrete  nest,  but  a  few 
of  them  are:  (i)  that  it  is  cool  in  summer  and  warm  in  winter;   (2)  no 


-  37-  —  Design  for  Hen  Nesting  House. 


draughts  are  possible,  hence  the  hen  will  not  acquire  roup;  (3)  they  can  be 
burnt  out  after  each  nesting  so  as  to  destroy  all  germs,  leaving  the  nest  clean 
and  wholesome;  (4)  if  discolored  by  the  fire  the  nest  can  be  whitewashed 
after  each  firing. 

133 


A  good  size  for  a  hen  nesting  house  is  12  inches  wide,  15  inches  nigh  and 
i8  inches  deep  inside  dimensions.  The  walls  and  back  should  be  2  inches 
thick,  while  the  front  is  left  entirely  open,  although  if  desired  a  lip  or  ledge 
can  be  cast  on  the  front  side.  The  ledge  can  be  made  out  of  wood  and  cut 
so  that  it  fits  snugly  in  the  concrete  and  this  can  be  removed  very  easily  when 
cleaning  the  nests*  The  forms,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37,  are  very  simple,  and  are 
made  so  that  a  number  of  nests  can  be  built  with  one  set  of  forms.  The 
outside  forms  consist  of  a  rectangular  box  without  any  ends  and  each  side 
made  as  a  separate  member  so  that  they  can  be  easily  taken  apart  after  the 
concrete  has  hardened.  When  nailing  the  sides  together  do  not  drive  the 
nails  home,  but  leave  the  heads  so  that  they  can  be  easily  drawn  with  a  claw 
hammer,  or,  better  still,  drive  the  nail  first  into  a  short  piece  of  lath  which 
can  be  easily  split  when  the  sides  of  the  form  are  to  be  removed,  and  thus  the 
heads  of  the  nails  will  stick  out  from  the  form  ^4  inch  and  can  be  easily  pulled 
out.  Nail  the  outside  form  together  with  the  two  bevel  pieces  for  the  top  of 
the  nest  tacked  in  and  place  on  either  hard  level  ground  or  a  plank  floor  or 
platform.  Oil  the  forms  well  so  that  they  can  be  easily  removed.  The  inside 
form  is  made  as  shown  in  the  figure,  having  a  hinge  at  the  peak  of  the  roof 
and  two  hinges  at  the  bottom  in  order  to  facilitate  removing  the  form.  It  is 
made  in  two  separate  sections  which  are  held  together  by  nailing  on  two  cleats 
to  serve  also  to  hold  them  in  the  outer  form  and  at  the  right  distance,  namely, 
2  inches  from  the  ground  or  platform.  After  placing  the  forms,  which  should 
be  well  greased,  mix  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  with  two  and  one- 
half  parts  of  clean,  coarse  sand  with  five  parts  of  screened  gravel  or  broken 
stone.  Place  the  layer  of  concrete  in  the  bottom  of  the  form  for  the  solid 
back  of  the  nest  and  then  fill  in  the  concrete  for  the  walls.  To  remove  the 
inside  form  take  off  the  two  top  cleats,  which  allow  the  two  slant  boards  to 
swing  together  on  the  hinge  at  the  top,  and  the  two  side  boards  swing  in  on 
to  the  base  boards,  making  it  possible  to  remove  them  very  readily. 

Thirteen  nests  can  be  made  from  one  barrel  (4  bags)  of  cement,  one-half 
of  a  single  load  (20  cubic  feet  per  single  load)  of  sand  and  one  load  of 
screened  gravel  or  broken  stone.  Figuring  cement  at  $2.00  a  barrel,  sand  at 
75  cents  a  cubic  yard  and  gravel  at  $1.25  per  cubic  yard,  the  cost  of  the 
material  for  the  concrete  for  each  nest  will  be  about  25  cents. 

CHICKEN    HOUSE. 

The  protection  afforded  by  a  concrete  chicken  house  against  rats,  weasels, 
and  other  vermin,  and  the  ease  with  which  such  a  structure  is  kept  clean, 
should  be  sufficient  reason  to  give  it  preference  over  every  other  kind. 

Excavate  a  trench  10  inches  wide,  to  a  depth  below  frost,  and  fill  with 
concrete  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  three  parts  clean,  coarse  sand 

134 


CHICKEN  HOUSE  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 


CHICKEN  HOUSE  AT  MONTCLAIR,  N.  j. 
'35 


and  six  parts  cinders.  On  this  foundation,  and  at  equal  distance  from  either 
edge,  build  a  solid  wall  5  inches  thick  (see  Walls),  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement,  two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  five  parts 
clean  cinders  or  screened  gravel.  The  roof  may  be  made  of  wood  or  of 
concrete.  If  the  house  is  not  more  than  8  feet  wide,  a  roof  with  slope  in  one 
direction  may  be  made  of  a  4-inch  concrete  slab  reinforced  with  steel  rods  or 
heavy  wire  mesh  of  size  suggested  in  the  table  of  Reinforced  Beams  and  Slabs. 
For  a  shorter  span  a  less  thickness  may  be  adopted.  A  slope  of  six  inches  in 
eight  feet  will  give  sufficient  pitch  for  the  water  to  run  off  if  the  surface  is 
well  trowelled,  as  described  under  Sidewalks.  If  the  width  is  more  than  8 
feet,  concrete  rafters  may  be  placed  and  slabs  upon  them  of  dimensions  to  be 
selected  from  the  table  of  Reinforced  Beams  and  Slabs. 


CONCRETE  CHICKEN  HOUSE  AT  LAUREL  GROVE,  N.  J. 

Concrete  shelves  and  water  basins  can  be  put  in  to  suit  convenience. 

A  coat  of  mortar  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  and  one  part  fine 
clean  sand,  mixed  as  thick  as  cream,  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  to  the 
outside  walls  as  soon  as  forms  are  removed,  although  with  careful  placing 
of  the  concrete,  the  surface  may  be  wet  and  rubbed  down  as  soon  as  the  wall 
forms  are  removed  and  before  the  concrete  has  hardened,  with  a  board  or  a 
brick,  to  remove  the  board  marks  of  the  forms  and  leave  a  pleasing  rough 
surface. 

The  use  of  cinders  is  recommended  in  this  construction,  as  the  voids  in  the 
cinders  take  up  the  moisture,  which  is  otherwise  liable  to  collect  on  the  inside 
of  the  wall  in  cold  weather.  The  walls  may  be  made  with  a  hollow  space,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  31  (p.  102). 

136 


GREENHOUSES. 

A  greenhouse  built  of  concrete  not  only  does  not  require  constant  repairs, 
but  saves  fuel,  as  it  retains  heat  and  keeps  out  cold  air. 

Greenhouses  should  have  a  foundation  10  inches  broad  and  16  inches  deep, 
or  below  frost,  composed  of  mixture  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement, 
three  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  six  parts  broken  stone.  On  this,  and  at 
equal  distance  from  either  edge,  erect  a  wall  7  inches  thick,  mixture  one  part 
''ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  five  parts 


GREENHOUSE  AT  U.  S.  SOLDIERS'  HOME,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

cinders,  to  the  height  required  for  the  walls.  A  ridgepole  can  be  erected,  6 
inches  wide  by  8  inches  deep,  of  concrete,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement,  two  and  one-half  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  five  parts  broken  stone 
or  gravel  not  over  three-quarters  inch  in  size,  reinforced  with  two  steel  bars 
each  one-half  inch  in  diameter.  If  total  width  of  house  is  not  over  16  feet, 
beams  2^2  inches  by  5  inches,  extending  from  ridgepole  to  side  wall, 
reinforced  with  a  %-inch  bar,  will  be  sufficiently  strong  to  support  the 
sashes. 

Reinforced  concrete  posts  8  inches  square  should  be  placed  at  intervals 
of  10  feet  to  support  the  ridgepole. 

iS7 


CONCRETE  GREENHOUSE  WITH  CONCRETE  SASH  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 


INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  GREENHOUSE  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 
138 


CONCRETE  GREENHOUSE  TABLES. 

The  tables  or  benches  in  greenhouses  should  be  constructed  of  concrete  in 
order  to  save  the  grower  the  large  expense  and  annoyance  of  renewing  and  re- 
placing every  few  years  the  old  decayed  wooden  benches.  The  tables  can  be 
made  either  as  one  member,  in  which  case  the  posts,  bottom  and  sides  are  cast 
in  one  continuous  piece  of  concrete,  or  they  can  be  made  by  constructing  them 
in  parts.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  drainage  of  the  water  from  the  table,  holes 


INTERIOR  VIEW  OF  GREENHOUSE  AT  GLEN  COVE,  L.  I. 

must  be  left  at  the  bottom  of  the  benches  except  when  the  bottom  is  cast  in  a 
series  of  slabs,  where  the  cracks  between  them  will  be  sufficient. 

Make  the  concrete  tables  which  are  cast  in  one  piece  2^  inches  Ihick  and 
of  a  mixture  composed  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  two  parts  of 
clean,  coarse  sand  to  four  parts  of  cinders,  reinforced  with  a  woven  wire 
fabric  or  %-inch  round  rods  spaced  7  inches  apart.  A  design  for  a  table  and 
forms  for  molding  the  separate  members  is  shown  in  Fig.  38.  The  posts 

I3Q 


should  be  5  inches  square,  spaced  on  6-foot  centers,  and  the  table  may  be  made 
4  feet  wide.  If  the  slab  is  molded  in  sections,  as  shown  in  the  drawing 
(Fig.  38),  the  section  should  be  made  about  12  inches  in  width  for  convenience 
in  handling. 

The  forms  if  well  planned  and  greased  with  oil  should  leave  the  concrete 
surface  smooth  enough  without  plastering  them,  but  if  desired  a  coating  % 


6//7. 


End  of  Form  Removed 


J  in.  Boards 


Fig.  38.     Design  of  a  Separately  Molded  Greenhouse  Table. 

of  an  inch  thick,  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  one  part  of  clean, 
fine  sand,  may  be  applied  to  them.  This  should  be  put  on  after  the  surface  to 
be  covered  has  been  picked  with  a  stone  axe  or  old  hatchet  and  thoroughly  wet. 


140 


GREENHOUSE  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 


INTERIOR  OF  GREENHOUSE  AT  U   S.  SOLDIERS'  HOME.  WASHINGTON,  D.  C 

141 


CONCRETE    GREENHOUSE    TRAYS. 

Greenhouses  are  so  warm  that  the  moisture  is  soon  dried  out  from  the  air. 
To  supply  the  necessary  amount  of  moisture,  it  is  frequently  advisable  to 
keep  a  number  of  trays  filled  with  water  about  the  greenhouse.  The  larger 
the  surface  of  these,  the  greater  the  evaporation,  and  hence  the  better  pro- 
ducers of  moisture.  These  trays  are  most  satisfactory  if  constructed  of 
concrete,  because  the  concrete,  unlike  the  wood  ones,  do  not  rot,  and  do  not 
shrink  if  allowed  to  become  dry  and  consequently  need  little  attention  to  see 
that  they  are  always  filled.  The  concrete  trays  can  be  made  very  attractive, 
and  are  more  serviceable  than  if  made  of  any  other  material. 

Make  the  trays  like  the  slabs  for  tables  (see  page  140),  except  form  a  lip  all 
around  them  to  the  required  height.  Brush  a  layer  of  pure  "ATLAS"  Cement, 
mixed  to  the  consistency  of  thin  cream,  over  the  inner  surface  two  or  three 
hours  after  the  concrete  is  poured  to  make  them  water-tight.  Protect  from 
sun  and  keep  wet  until  they  are  to  be  used. 

Frequently  larger  tanks  are  preferred,  which  may  be  made  18  inches  wide 
by  1 8  inches  deep,  with  6-inch  reinforced  walls. 


CONCRETE  FLOWER  BOXES. 

CONCRETE  FLOWER  BOXES. 

Concrete  veranda  boxes  for  flowers  do  not  rot  and  therefore  do  not  have 
to  be  renewed  every  two  or  three  years.  They  are  attractive,  too,  not  only  on 
the  porch  of  any  stone,  stucco  or  cement  house,  but  are  ornamental  to  a 
frame  house. 

143 


The  length  of  the  concrete  veranda  box  is  generally  determined  by  the 
size  of  the  space  in  which  it  is  to  be  placed  on  the  veranda.  A  good  size  is 
5  feet  long,  8  inches  deep,  and  10  or  12  inches  wide.  The  outside  forms 
consist  of  a  long  rectangular  box,  which  may  have  the  two  long  sides  tapered 
if  desired,  so  that  the  box  will  be  10  inches  at  the  bottom  and  12  inches  at  the 
top.  This  will  make  the  finished  concrete  box  look  more  attractive  than  if 
made  with  perfectly  vertical  sides.  Use  planed  lumber  in  the  forms  and  oil 
them  thoroughly  on  all  the  surfaces  coming  in  contact  with  the  concrete. 
Line  the  outside  form  with  poultry  netting,  folding  it  at  the  end  or  corners 
so  as  to  make  a  reasonably  close  fit  to  the  walls  of  the  mold.  Place  the  inside 
form,  which  consists  of  a  bottomless  frame  having  dimensions  3  inches  smaller 
each  way  than  the  outside  one,  so  as  to  make  the  walls  1^2  inches  thick.  Set 


CONCRETE  FLOWER  BOX  AT  PATERSON,  N.  J. 

this  inside  form  on  little  blocks  of  wood  to  keep  the  form  raised  i^  inches 
from  the  bottom  of  the  outside  form.  These  wood  pieces  can  be  removed 
when  the  concrete  is  hard,  and  will  leave  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  for 
draining  off  the  excess  water. 

Mix  a  batch  of  concrete  composed  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement 
to  three  parts  clean,  gravelly  sand  which  has  been  screened  through  a  %-inch 
mesh  screen,  that  is,  a  screen  having  openings  ^  inch  square.  Lay  the 
concrete,  which  should  be  of  the  consistency  of  mortar  for  laying  brick. 
Remove  the  inner  form  very  carefully  in  an  hour  or  two,  but  leave  the  outside 
form  at  least  until  the  next  day.  The  outside  surface  generally  need  not  be 
finished  off  further  than  wetting  it  down  thoroughly  and  rubbing  it  with  a 
wood  float  or  brick,  but  if  desired  it  may  be  finished  off  as  described  on  page  27. 
The  box  must  not  be  moved  for  at  least  a  week,  for  fear  of  cracking  it.  Wet 
it  occasionally  during  this  time. 


HOT-BED    FRAMES. 

Excavate  a  trench  to  a  depth  below  frost  and  erect  forms  for  a  4-inch  wall. 
Fill  with  concrete  mixture  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  three  parts 
clean,  coarse  sand  and  six  parts  broken  stone  or  gravel,  to  level  of  the  ground. 
On  top  of  these  build  forms  for  a  3-inch  wall  to  height  desired,  and  fill  with 
concrete  of  the  same  proportions.  Remove  the  forms  in  two  or  three  days 
and  keep  the  walls  damp  for  a  couple  of  weeks. 


CONCRETE  COLD  FRAMES  AT  WESTCHESTER,  N.  Y, 


WINDMILL  FOUNDATIONS. 

The  great  danger  caused  by  the  rotting  of  wooden  windmill  foundations 
is  obviated  by  the  use  of  concrete. 

Excavate  four  holes  at  the  proper  distance  apart,  2^2  feet  square  and  5 
feet  deep;  build  forms  for  the  sides  and  grease  properly.  Fill  forms  2  feet 
deep  with  concrete,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  three  parts  clean, 
coarse  sand,  six  parts  broken  stone  or  gravel,  of  a  jelly-like  consistency, 
tamping  well  every  six  inches.  To  insure  proper  location  of  holding-down 


bolts,  construct  template  and 
hang  the  bolts  from  it,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  39,  and  fill  in 
concrete  around  them  until 
flush  with  top  of  form,  and 
allow  to  set  several  days  be- 
fore using.  This  gives  a  sub- 
stantial anchorage  for  a  steel 
tower. 

In  case  a  wooden  tower  is 
to  be  used,  run  projecting 
bolts  up  through  the  timber 
sills  and  use  large  cast-iron 
washers  under  the  nuts.  The 
anchorage  in  this  case  should 
project  at  least  6  inches  above 
the  ground. 


Fig.  39.     Form  for   Windmill 
Foundation. 


WINDMILL  FOUNDATION  AT  MONROE,  N.  J. 
145 


CONCRETE  ROLLER. 

A  concrete  roller  may  be  made  as  a  hand  roller  to  be  operated  by  one  or 
two  men  or  as  a  horse  roller,  when  it  is,  of  course,  larger  and  heavier.  A 
hand  roller  for  two  men  suitable  for  rolling  lawns  should  be  made  about  18 
inches  in  diameter  and  24  inches  long.  This  size  of  roller  weighs  about  530 
pounds  or  265  pounds  per  foot  of  length.  The  roller  shown  below  is  of 
the  dimensions  first  given  and  has  been  used  very  satisfactorily  for  several 
years. 


CONCRETE  ROLLER  AT  NEWTON,  MASS. 

A  form  for  making  a  concrete  roller  is  very  easily  and  cheaply  made,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  40.  For  a  roller  18  inches  in  diameter  and  24  inches  long  cut  a 
piece  of  sheet  iron  24  inches  by  25%  inches.  The  edges  must  be  cut  even  and 
must  be  square.  Make  two  sets  of  wood  clamps  like  the  circular  forms  shown 
on  page  21.  The  piece  of  sheet  iron  cut  to  the  dimensions  as  given  can  now 
be  bent  in  a  circle  and  nailed,  if  necessary,  to  the  two  wood  clamps.  Wire 
the  iron  form  or  jacket  with  No.  16  wire  to  hold  the  form  from  opening  at 
the  joint  when  the  concrete  is  placed.  Grease  or  oil  the  inside  of  the  form 
thoroughly  so  that  it  will  not  stick  to  the  concrete.  To  make  an  opening 
through  the  center  of  the  roller  for  an  axle  or  shaft,  place  a  3^  or  %-inch  iron 
pipe  in  the  center  of  the  form.  The  axle  can  be  cast  in  the  roller  itself  if 
desired  instead  of  casting  a  %  or  %-inch  pipe  in  the  roller  in  which  to  place 
the  axle.  The  concrete  should  be  made  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement  to  two  parts  of  sand  to  four  parts  of  stone  or  gravel.  It  will  take  a- 
little  less  than  one  bag  of  cement  for  a  roller  of  the  above  dimensions. 

146 


-IQ/n 


/x J  /n 


-|/>7.  /ron  P/j 


Fig.  40.     Form  for  Concrete  Roller. 

147 


The  handle  for  a  hand  roller  may  be  made  of  54-inch  by  i-inch  iron,  bent 
and  welded  together  as  shown  in  the  figure.  Where  the  roller  is  heavier,  or 
is  to  be  operated  by  a  horse,  a  heavier  handle  and  different  design  of  handle 
can  be  easily  made. 

A  small  roller  for  rolling  seeded  ground  or  golf  greens  may  be  made  by 
pouring  concrete  into  a  piece  of  pipe  which  forms  the  outside  surface. 


DANCE  PAVILION  AT  TWIN  LAKE,  HARRISTOWN,  ILL. 

DANCE    PAVILION. 

The  photograph  of  the  pavilion  at  Twin  Lake,  Harristown,  111.,  shows 
what  can  be  accomplished  by  a  farmer  and  one  farm  hand  who  had  never 
before  had  any  experience  with  concrete.  There  are  16  posts  in  the  30  by 
4O-foot  pavilion,  each  8  inches  by  n  inches,  and  the  walls  are  3  feet  high  and 
4  inches  thick.  The  lumber  used  for  the  forms  was  not  cut  up  any  more  than 
necessary  and  was  all  used  for  the  roof.  Thirty-five  barrels  of  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement  were  required  in  the  construction  of  the  posts,  walls  and 
floor.  Sand  and  gravel  found  on  the  farm  was  used  and  the  concrete  was 
proportioned  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  to  seven  parts  of  aggre- 
gate. A  3-inch  floor  was  laid,  using  the  same  mix  of  concrete,  and  was 
surfaced  with  a  %-inch  coat  of  mortar,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement 
to  one  part  of  sand. 

The  time  required  to  make,  place  and  remove  forms  was  two  days  each  for 
the  two  men.  It  took  them  10  days  to  mix  and  lay  the  concrete  for  the 
entire  structure. 

148 


PIAZZA. 

In  building  a  concrete  piazza  the  first  care  should  be  the  supports.  Unless 
these  are  strong  and  have  a  foundation  that  will  not  be  affected  by  frost,  the 
piazza  is  liable  to  prove  a  failure. 

Erect  two  lines  of  4-inch  posts,  8-inch  bases,  8  feet  apart,  extending  below 
frost.  The  outer  line  of  posts  should  be  slightly  lower  than  the  inner  line, 
which  is  next  to  the  house  to  allow  water  to  flow  off  the  piazza.  On  top  of 
and  connecting  these  in  both  directions,  build  concrete  cross  beams  and 
stringers  4  inches  by  8  inches.  Posts  should  be  reinforced  with  a  3/8-inch 


CONCRETE  PORCH  STEPS  AND  LATTICE  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 

steel  bar  and  beams  with  two  3/g-inch  bars  placed  one  inch  above  the  bottom. 
For  a  large  piazza,  refer  to  dimension  of  beams  and  reinforcement  in  Table 
for  "Designing  Reinforced  Concrete  Beams  and  Slabs,"  pages  30  and  31. 

After  the  concrete  has  set  hard,  erect  forms  and  build  a  solid  slab  of 
concrete  over  the  entire  framework,  allowing  it  to  project  slightly  over  the 
outer  edge.  This  slab  should  be  reinforced  with  a  woven  wire  fabric  or 
expanded  metal  or  with  steel  rods,  using  the  size  and  spacing  given  for  slabs 
in  the  Beam  and  Slab  Table  just  mentioned. 

If  preferred  the  forms  for  the  beams  and  floor  may  be  built  at  the  same 
time,  and  the  concrete  poured  in  one  operation. 

U9 


A  finished  surface  can  be  obtained  by  plastering  the  surface  one-half  inch 
thick  with  mortar,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  and  one  part  clean, 
coarse  sand,  before  the  concrete  has  set  and  trowelling  it  hard  as  the  mortar 
begins  to  stiffen. 

LATTICE. 

In  building  a  lattice,  the  fact  that  thfre  are  two  thicknesses  of  concrete, 
i.  e.,  the  thickness  of  the  panel  or  border  an$  thi  thickness  °f  tne  lattice  itself, 
should  be  borne  in  mind. 

Build  a  form  8  inches  higher  arid  8  inches  longer  than  the  size  the  finished 
lattice  is  to  be,  using  2-inch  stuff.  Along  the  top,  bottom  and  at  either  end, 
nail  a  4-inch  by  4-inch  scantling,  and  on  these  nail  a  2-inch  by  8-inch  plank 


afocte 


Efevafion  of  Lattice  w/fh  parf  of  Form  removed. 


Wank 


Section  B,&. 
Fig.  41.    Forms  for  Concrete  Lattice. 

(see  Fig.  41).  On  the  back  of  the  form,  at  equal  distances  apart  and  equal 
distances  from  the  edge  of  the  2-inch  by  8-inch  plank,  nail  securely  blocks  of 
wood  of  the  shape  of  the  holes  desired.  (See  holes  in  lattice  in  accompanying 
cut.)  Lay  the  form  thus  made  on  the  ground,  face  up,  and  block  securely. 
Fill  with  concrete  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  two  parts  sand  and 
four  parts  fine  broken  stone  or  gravel  to  the  level  of  small  blocks  for  holes, 
and  pack  concrete  all  around  under  the  2-inch  by  8-inch  plank  to  form  panel ; 
tamp  hard,  making  sure  there  are  no  voids.  Smooth  off  face  of  concrete 
and  let  stand  for  a  week,  or  until  the  concrete  is  thoroughly  dry.  If  the 
surface  is  not  smooth  enough  a  coating  of  grout,  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement  and  one  part  fine,  clean  sand,  mixed  as  thick  as  cream,  may  be  applied 
with  a  brush  after  first  roughening  surface  and  wetting  it  thoroughly.  A 
moderately  dry  concrete  should  be  used  in  this  form. 

150 


The  lattice  may  be  built  in  place  by  leaving  off  the  4-inch  by  4-inch  block 
at  the  top  of  form  and  boarding  up  the  open  space  in  front  of  "hole-blocks" 
with  a  i%-inch  plank  and  pouring  the  concrete  in  from  the  top  (Fig.  41).  A 
very  wet  concrete  should  be  used  if  this  plan  is  followed. 

CHIMNEY   CAPS. 

Chimney  caps  of  concrete  are  rapidly  supplanting  stone,  brick  or  iron,  as 
they  are  not  only  cheaper  and  more  durable,  but  protect  the  top  of  chimney 
better. 


Fig.  42.     Forms  for  Chimney  Cap. 


CHIMNEY  CAP  AT  CHESTNUT  HILL,  MASS. 


Make  a  bottomless  box  the  size  of  the  re- 
quired cap,  and  one  or  more  small  bottom- 
less boxes  to  correspond  to  the  flue  or  flues 
of  the  chimney,  and  %  inch  higher,  so  that 
the  surface  of  the  concrete  can  be  sloped  to 
allow  water  to  flow  off,  and  set  in  place  (Fig. 
42).  The  thickness  is  usually  about  4  inches, 
but  this  can  be  varied  to  suit  convenience. 
Plaster  the  inside  surface  of  the  large  mold 
with  z  inch  of  stiff  mortar  and  then  imme- 


diately  fill  form  one-half  full  with  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  three 
parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  six  parts  broken  stone,  and  put  in  reinforcing, 
either  woven  wire,  expanded  metal  or  ^4-inch  rods,  complete,  and  tamp  until 
water  puddles  on  top.  When  partly  set,  trowel  smooth. 

If  it  is  desired  to  build  the  cap  in  place,  the  following  plan  should  be 
adhered  to :  Place  small  rods  across  the  chimney  between  the  flues.  On  these 
build  platform  of  tongue  and  grooved  board  planed  on  upper  side  and  driven 
snug  together,  but  not  nailed.  On  this  platform  place  the  forms  previously 
described  and  fill  with  reinforced  concrete.  After  the  concrete  has  set  (at 
least  a  week  is  needed)  remove  platform  and  rods  by  raising  each  side  of 
chimney  cap  alternately  and  knocking  platform  apart.  Remove  outer  and 
inner  forms.  Raise  one  end  of  slab,  cover  all  accessible  surface  of  top  of 
chimney  with  mortar,  lower  cap  on  bed  thus  formed  and  remove  rods  under 
end.  Repeat  process  at  opposite  end. 


REMOVING  DECAYED  MATTER  FROM  TREE 
BEFORE  FILLING 

TREE 


TREE  WITH  CAVITY  FILLED  WITH 
CONCRETE 


SURGERY. 

Tree   surgery  not   only  consists   in   cutting   away   all   the   decaying   and 
dead  matter  of  the  tree,  but  embraces  also  the  pruning  and  chaining  of  limbs, 

152 


scraping,  and  filling  of  cavities.  Through  the  skillful  methods  used  by  the 
tree  surgeon  it  is  possible  to  give  a  new  lease  of  life  to  trees  which  apparently 
have  reached  their  limit  of  existence.  The  cavities  are  caused  by  poor 
pruning  of  limbs,  the  breaking  off  of  branches  and  other  injuries.  While  the 
treatment  of  the  cavities  varies  more  or  less  in  different  cases,  if  the  specifica- 
tions given  below  are  followed  closely  a  good  job  should  result. 

The  tree  grows  in  girth  by  the  deposit  of  a  thin  layer  of  new  wood 
between  the  wood  and  the  bark.  It  is  this  new  layer  and  others  recently 
formed  which  are  known  as  the  sapwood  and  form  the  active  section  of  the 
trunk  and  branches.  The  inner  rings  are  gradually  covered  by  the  yearly 
deposit  of  this  new  growth,  and  in  turn  the  living  sapwood  becomes  heart- 
wood,  which  is  dead,  and  serves  merely  as  a  strong  framework  for  the  living 
parts  of  the  tree.  This  is  the  reason  why  hollow  trees  may  often  be  found  in  a 
flourishing  condition  when  the  heartwood  has  entirely  disappeared. 
FILLING  THE  CAVITY.  Cut  out  all  the  deceased  and  decaying  part  of 
the  tree  without  regard  to  the  size  of  the  wound  which  is  made.  This  must 
be  cleaned  out  with  the  same  thoroughness  which  a  dentist  uses  when  cleaning 
the  cavity  of  a  tooth  for  a  filling.  If  all  of  the  decayed  matter  is  not  removed 
the  decay  will  continue  as  if  the  filling  had  not  been  placed.  Disinfect  the 
freshly  cut  surfaces  with  a  coat  of  creosote  or  crude  petroleum  oil.  Heat  some 
coal  tar  and  apply  a  thick  coat  to  the  disinfected  surfaces.  This  coat  of  tar 
applied  thick  serves  as  a  plastic  substance  to  prevent  any  cracks  between  the 
cement  and  the  wood  from  shrinkage.* 

The  cavity,  if  it  is  a  large  one,  may  be  reinforced  to  better  hold  the 
concrete  in  place  with  either  some  woven  wire  mesh  reinforcement  or  with 
small  steel  rods  placed  across  from  side  to  side  of  the  cavity.  Cut  back  the 
bark  for  about  3/£  of  an  inch  or  so  around  the  entire  wound  in  order  to  prevent 
bruising  it  while  the  work  is  in  progress,  and  in  order  to  get  the  cement 
perfectly  flush  with  the  wood,  which  cannot  be  done  when  the  bark  is  not 
cut  away. 

For  a  large  cavity  some  kind  of  a  form  must  be  used  to  prevent  the 
concrete  from  caving  out  when  it  is  being  placed.  For  this  boards  may  be 
fitted  to  the  opening,  leaving  a  space  at  the  top  to  pour  in  the  concrete;  or 
metal,  like  zinc  or  tin,  may  be  thoroughly  greased  and  tacked  on.  When  it 
is  ready  mix  up  a  batch  of  concrete  composed  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement,  two  parts  of  sand  and  four  parts  of  screened  gravel  or  stone  made  up 
to  a  rather  stiff  consistency,  about  like  jelly. 

If  the  opening  to  the  cavity  is  small,  so  that  no  form  is  required,  trowel 
the  surface  of  the  concrete  lightly  so  as  to  leave  it  smooth.  If  the  concrete 
is  too  soft  to  make  a  good  vertical  surface  or  if  the  upper  part  of  the  cavity  is 

*Methods  similar  to  these  have  been  used  by  Mr.  G.  E.  Stone,  of  the  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  College,  for  a  number  of  years. 


not  entirely  filled,  wait  for  two  or  three  hours  until  the  concrete  has  begun 
to  stiffen,  ram  it  in  again  to  completely  fill  the  hole  and  then  trowel  the 
surface,  adding  a  little  stiff  concrete  if  necessary. 

If  forms  are  used,  remove  them  as  soon  as  possible,  either  in  a  few  hours 
or  else  the  next  day,  and  go  over  the  surface  so  as  to  slightly  roughen  it  and 
remove  the  form  marks. 

The  bark  on  a  tree  treated  in  this  way  will  in  time  grow  over  the  concrete 
and  in  some  cases  not  even  leave  a  scar. 

CONCRETE   AQUARIUM. 

Aquariums  constructed  of  concrete  can  be  made  attractive  and  have  been 
found  very  serviceable.  At  the  fisheries  at  Cold  Springs  Harbor,  L.  I., 
some  of  these  concrete  aquariums  have  been  in  service  since  1904  and  look 
as  good  to-day  as  when  first  made. 

Make  the  base  or  bottom  of  each  tank  18  by  31  inches  and  the  vertical  sides 
13  by  15  inches,  by  2  inches  thick.  Make  the  sides  with  vertical  grooves 


THIRTY-FOOT  DIAMETER  CONCRETE  FOUNTAIN  AT  UNION,  PA. 
(1:4  Mix,  6-inch  Thick  Walls,  10  inches  Deep) 

i%  inches  from  the  edge  in  order  to  set  in  the  glass  sides.  Leave  grooves  in 
the  bottom  also  so  that  the  glass  sides  can  be  puttied  in  and  be  made  water- 
tight at  the  joints. 

CONCRETE    BLOCKS. 

During  the  past  few  years  concrete  blocks  have  been  used  extensively  and 
many    patents    have    been    granted    the    manufacturers    of    concrete    block 

i54 


DETAIL  OF  CONCRETE  PEBBLE-FINISHED  RESIDENCE  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 


STUCCO  COTTAGE  AT  CEDARHURST,  L.  I. 
1.55 


machines  for  the  various  devices  and  methods  employed.  Buildings  con- 
structed with  concrete  blocks  have  proved  satisfactory  when  the  blocks  have 
been  made  with  care  and  with  proper  materials. 

STUCCO. 

Stucco  work  is  cement  plastering,  and,  in  one  form  or  another,  has  been 
in  use  for  ages.  It  is  durable,  artistic  and  impervious  to  weather.  For 
veneering  new  buildings,  or  protecting  old  structures,  and  wherever  the  cost 
of  solid  concrete  is  prohibitive,  Portland  Cement  Stucco  cannot  be  equaled. 

Stucco  work  may  be  used  to  cover  wood,  brick,  stone  or  any  other  building 
material,  provided  special  precautions  are  taken  in  preparing  the  surface 
properly  so  that  it  will  adhere  and  not  crack  or  scale  off.  The  work  should 
be  done  by  an  experienced  plasterer. 

As  a  rule  two  coats  are  used — the  first,  a  scratch  coat  composed  of  five 
parts  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  twelve  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  three 
parts  slaked  lime  putty  and  a  small  quantity  of  hair;  the  second,  a  finishing 
coat  composed  of  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement,  three  or  even  five 
parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  one  part  slaked  lime  paste.  Should  only  one 
coat  be  desired  the  finishing  coat  is  used.  Some  masons  prefer  a  mortar  in 
which  no  lime  is  used,  but  this  requires  more  time  to  apply  it. 

To  apply  Stucco  to  brick  or  stone  or  concrete,  clean  the  surface  of  the 
wall  thoroughly,  using  plenty  of  clean  water  so  as  to  soak  the  wall.  If 
the  surface  is  concrete  roughen  it  by  picking  with  a  stone  axe.  Plaster  with  a 
i*/2-inch  coat  and  finish  the  surface  with  a  wood  float,  or  to  make  a  rough 
surface  cover  the  float  with  burlap.  Protect  the  stucco  work  from  the  sun 
and  keep  it  thoroughly  wet  for  three  or  four  days;  the  longer  it  is  kept  wet 
the  better. 

In  using  Stucco  on  a  frame  structure,  first  cover  surface  with  two  thick- 
nesses of  roofing  paper.  Next  put  on  furring  strips  about  one  foot  apart,  and 
on  these  fasten  wire  lathing.  (There  are  several  kinds,  any  of  which  are 
good.)  Apply  the  scratch  coat  ^  inch  thick  and  press  it  partly  through  the 
openings  in  the  lath,  roughing  the  surface  with  a  stick  or  trowel.  Allow  this 
to  set  well  and  apply  the  finishing  coat  */2  inch  to  i  inch  thick.  This  coat  can 
be  put  on  and  smoothed  with  a  wooden  float,  or  it  can  be  thrown  on  with  a 
trowel  or  large  stiff-fibered  brush,  if  a  spatter-dash  finish  is  desired.  A 
pebble-dash  finish  may  be  obtained  with  a  final  coat  of  one  part  "ATLAS" 
Portland  Cement,  three  parts  coarse  sand  and  pebbles  not  over  *4  incn  m 
diameter,  thrown  on  with  a  trowel. 

COLORING   FOR    CONCRETE    FINISH. 

The  use  of  colored  concrete  up  to  the  present  time  has  not  been  general, 
and  the  effect  of  coloring  ingredients  upon  the  strength  of  concrete  is  not 
definitely  known. 

156 


METHOD  OF  APPLYING  PEBBLE  DASH  FINISH 
157 


In  his  book  on  "Cement  and  Concrete,"*  Mr.  L.  C.  Sabin,  an  eminent 
authority,  states  that  the  dry  mineral  colors  mixed  with  the  water  in 
proportions  by  weight  of  from  two  to  ten  per  cent,  of  the  cement  give  shades 
approaching  the  color  used,  with  no  apparent  effect  on  the  early  hardening 
of  the  mortar. 

Mr.  Sabin  also  gives  the  following  table,  showing  the  result  obtained 
from  a  dry  mortar  (wet  mortars  give  a  darker  shade)  : 

COLORED  MORTARS 
Colors  Given  to  Portland  Cement  Mortars  Containing  2  Parts  River  Sand  to  1  Cement. 


Dry 
Material 
Used 

WEIGHT  OF  DRY  COLORING  MATTER  TO  100  POUNDS  OF 
CEMENT 

Cost  of 
Coloring 
Matter  per 
Pound,  Ct. 

Yi  Pound 

1  Pound 

2  Pounds 

4  Pounds 

Lamp  Black 

Light  Slate 

Light  Gray 

Blue  Gray 

Dark  Blue 
Slate 

15 

Prussian  Blue 

Light  Green 
Slate 

Light  Blue 
Slate 

Blue  Slate 

Bright  Blue 
Slate 

50 

Ultra  Marine 
Blue 

Light  Blue 
Slate 

Blue  Slate 

Bright  Blue 

Slate 

20 

Yellow  Ochre 

Light  Green 

Light  Buff 

3 

Burnt  Umber 

Light  Pinkish 
Slate 

Pinkish  Slate 

Dull  Lavender 
Pink 

Chocolate 

10 

Venetian  Red 

Slate,  Pink 
Tinge 

Bright  Pink- 
ish Slate 

Light  Dull 
Pink 

Dull  Pink 

2y2 

Chattanooga 
Iron  Ore 

Light  Pinkish 
Slate 

Dull  Pink 

Light  Terra 
Cotta 

Dull  Brick 
Red 

2 

Red  Iron  Ore 

Pinkish  Slate 

Dull  Pink 

Terra  Cotta 

Light  Brick 
Red 

2y2 

*"Cement  and  Concrete,"  Louis  Carlton  Sabin;     McGraw  Publishing  Company,  N.  Y. 


BURNT  BARN  AT  BROOKSIDE  FARM  SHOWING  CONCRETE  BUILDING  IN  REAR  IN  WHICH  THE  LEAD 
TRAPS  ON  THE  SINKS  WERE  NOT  EVEN  MELTED  OFF 

158 


CULVERTS.* 

Concrete  culverts  of  all  sizes  and  shapes  are  being  constructed  not  only 
where  the  roads  have  been  fully  developed,  but  also  on  a  great  many  farm 
roads.  They  are  cheaper  than  wooden  culverts  considering  that  the  wooden 
ones  rot  out  every  few  years.  If  desired,  they  can  be  made  quite  artistic. 

Culverts  vary  greatly  in  size,  from  those  which  are  nothing  more  than  a 
large  sewer  pipe  to  those  which  span  a  wide  stream. 


CULVERT  AT  HARRISTOWN,  ILL. 

The  bore  or  opening  through  which  the  water  passes  may  be  made  either 
circular  or  rectangular.  Culverts  are  generally  built  with  a  circular  bore, 
although  the  forms  for  these  are  more  difficult  to  make  than  for  the  rectangu- 
lar, so  that  frequently  the  latter  are  much  cheaper. 

A  culvert  should  be  built,  if  possible,  during  the  dry  season  or  when  the 
water  is  low.  When  of  such  size  as  to  make  it  impracticable  to  build  it 
by  having  the  water  flow  through  the  center  in  a  trough  or  flume,  then  build 
a  dam  above  the  culvert  and  convey  the  water  around  one  side  of  the  proposed 
new  structure  while  the  work  is  in  progress  by  means  of  a  wooden  trough  or 
a  deep  ditch. 


*For  further  detail  information  see  "Concrete  in  Highway  Construction,"  published 
by  The  "ATLAS"  Portland  Cement  Co. 

159 


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Fig.  43.    Design  for  a  5-Foot  Arch  Culvert. 

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Fig.  44.    Design  for  an  8- Foot  Arch  Culvert. 
160 


CULVERT  AT  DES  MOINES,  IOWA. 


CULVERT  AT  MORTON.  ILL. 
161 


The  footings  of  the  culvert  can  usually  be  laid  directly  on  the  earth  in 
the  bottom  of  the  trench  dug  for  them.  Where  the  ground  is  soft,  place  wide 
footings  under  the  culvert,  and  if  deep  marsh  is  encountered  excavate  to  hard 
soil  and  fill  with  gravel  well  rammed  or  else  drive  piles  to  prevent  any 
settlement. 

In  a  small  culvert  set  the  forms  complete  and  place  the  concrete  for  the 
whole  culvert  in  one  operation.  In  a  large  culvert  this  is  not  practicable,  in 
which  case  set  rough  forms  for  the  footings  and  up  to  the  springing  line  of  the 
arch.  After  laying  the  concrete  to  this  level  set  up  the  arch  centers  and 
wing  wall  forms.  Oil  the  forms  well.  The  wing  wall  forms  may  be  built 
of  i -inch  boards  laid  horizontally  against  2  x  4-inch  studs.  The  inner  wing 
wall  form  must  be  cut  somewhat  to  the  shape  of  the  arch  or  stepped  off 
around  the  arch.  The  top  of  the  arch  needs  forms  from  the  springing  line  up 
to  about  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  the  way  to  the  crown,  as  the  wet 
concrete  will  not  stand  on  so  steep  a  slope. 

The  mix  of  concrete  for  culverts  should  be  one  part  "ATLAS"  Portland 
Cement  to  two  and  one-half  parts  of  clean,  coarse  sand  to  five  parts  of 
screened  gravel  or  broken  stone.  The  amount  of  materials  for  the  culverts 
given  in  Figs.  43,  44  and  45,  is  tabulated  in  the  table  below.  If  the  excavation 
must  be  deeper  than  shown,  of  course  more  material  will  be  needed. 


AMOUNT  OP  MATERIALS  FOR  ARCH  CULVERTS. 


MATERIALS  FOR  CULVERT  FOR  10-FT.  ROADWAY 
(See  Figs.  43,  44  and  45) 


Screened* 

Screened 

Span  of 

Sand* 

Gravel  or 

Sand 

Gravel  or 

Culvert 

Cement 

Double 

Stone 

Cement 

Double 

Stone* 

Load 

Double 

Load* 

Double 

Feet 

Bags  Bbls. 

Load 

Bags  Bbls. 

Load 

5 

50or  12X 

3 

6 

2  or^ 

if 

x, 

8 

80  or  20 

4^ 

9K 

3or^ 

%6 

X 

10 

115  or  28^< 

7 

14 

4  or  1 

K 

K 

EXTRA    MATERIAL    FOR    EACH     ADDI- 
TIONAL FT.   WIDTH  OF  ROAD 


*A  double  load  of  sand  or  gravel  is  taken  as  40  cubic  feet  or  about  1 J^  cubic  yards. 

Fig.  46  shows  a  form  for  an  arch  culvert  and  also  the  flume  box  in  place 
to  take  care  of  the  water  during  construction.  The  inside  wall  form  is 
constructed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  wall  forms  previously  explained, 
except  that  a  3  by  4-inch  or  a  4  by  4-inch  ranger  is  set  across  the  top  of  the 
cleats  on  which  the  wedges  are  placed  to  support  the  arch  form.  The  wedges 
should  separate  the  two  forms  at  least  3  inches  so  that  when  the  forms  are 

i6a 


OJ 

3 
a1 

CO 


o 
O 


163 


to  be  removed  the  arch  center  can  drop  this  distance  and  be  readily  removed. 
A  strip  of  sheet  iron  should  be  nailed  to  the  side  forms  as  shown  and  lap^over 
on  to  the  arch  form  to  prevent  the  concrete  from  getting  in  between  the  forms, 
in  which  case  it  would  be  impossible  to  remove  the  arch  form  without 
breaking  it  to  pieces.  After  pulling  out  the  arch  form  the  side  forms  can  be 
easily  removed.  The  circular  forms  or  braces  which  support  the  i^-inch 
lagging  should  be  placed  on  4-foot  centers,  or  if  i-inch  lagging  is  used  space 
the  forms  2  feet  apart. 

Fig.  47  is  the  standard  type  of  form  and  culvert  used  by  the  Iowa  State 
Highway  Commission.  The  invert  or  water  table  in  this  case  is  shown  as  a 
concrete  slab,  but  this  may  be  omitted  in  some  cases  and  can  be  used  if  desired 
in  an  arch  culvert  as  well.  Where  an  invert  or  bottom  of  concrete  is  used  it 
must  be  protected  at  both  ends  by  an  apron,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  to  prevent 
the  water  from  washing  the  earth  from  underneath  it. 


J 

^jsH         gf 


IleL 
S 
-»  — 

///  tc./n. 

-  /ort.  -^ 

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r 

— 

J 

B 

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5: 

22  /?. 


T; 

^aA/fe  /y///>7^ 


'nd  Elevation 


/ess  fhpn 
lain 


Longitudinal  Sect/on 


Plan 

Design  for  a  10-Foot  Arch  Culvert. 


A  good  method  of  making  the  invert  of  a  culvert  is  to  lay  cobble  or  field 
stones  as  shown  in  the  figures.  This  can  be  done  even  when  there  is  consider- 
able water  running  through  the  culvert,  and  should  a  dry  spell  occur  the 
cobbles  can  be  plastered  or  grouted  over,  making  a  very  satisfactory  and 
efficient  invert. 

164 


Lagging 


Fig.  46.    Design  of  Forms  for  Arch  Culvert. 


CONCRETE  COAL  CHUTE,  DUMONT,  N.  J. 


CONCRETE  CISTERN  COVER,  HARRISTOWN,  ILL. 


FRUIT  CELLAR  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 

1 66 


DOG  HOUSE  AT  WESTWOOD,  N.  J. 


ENGINE  BASE  IN  WELL  HOUSE  AT  COLUMBIA,  MO. 


CONCRETE  FLUME,  REDLANDS,  CALIFORNIA 


CONCRETE  BLOCK  FIREPLACE  AT  CEDAR  BROOK.  N.  J. 
1 68 


Ask  Your  Dealer  for  Price  on 
"Atlas"— If  he  cannot  supply  you 
write  to 

The  Atlas  Portland  Cement  Co., 
30  Broad  Street, 

New  York  City. 


The  Federal  Printing  Co.,  231  West  39th  St.,  IN.  Y. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


FEB22  1968  15 
REC'D  LD 


EB    9 '68 -8  AM 


LD  2lA-45m-9,'67 
(H5067slO)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


YD   16714 


272129 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


